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Essential Physics II E 英語で物理学の エッセンス II Lecture 14: 18-01-16 Last lecture of EP2! Congratulations! This was a hard course. Be proud! Next week’s exam Next Monday! All lecture slides on course website: http://astro3.sci.hokudai.ac.jp/~tasker/teaching/ep2 Remember your calculator! Dictionary is OK! (Phone is not) SHOW ALL WORKING! Next week’s exam 10 multiple choice questions (A) ..... (B) ..... (C) ..... (D) ..... 3 thermodynamics 5 electromagnetism 2 modern physics Homework Attendance / clickers Exam Total 40 % 20 % 40 % 100 % Pass > 60 % Next week’s exam This is a question. (A) ..... (B) ..... (C) ..... (D) ..... F F 1 B= = Il sin ✓ l I sin ✓ 0.31N/m = = 49mT (15A) sin(25 ) If this is wrong.... You will get marks! SHOW YOUR WORKING! But parts of this are right... Modern Physics Particle Physics What are we made from? In 1924, Physicists thought the Universe was made from: 4 elementary particles Cannot be divided. Proton Not made from smaller particles. Neutron Electron Neutrino charge (q) = 0 Positron Electron antiparticle Same mass Opposite charge Every elementary particle has an antiparticle What are we made from? In 1924, Physicists thought the Universe was made from: Electromagnetic radiation 4 Forces Gravity Photon Electromagnetic N P Nuclear N P Weak e radioactive decay What are we made from? In 1924, Physicists thought the Universe was made from: 2 questions: How is it connected? Photon N N P e P Forces Particles Is this everything? Forces as particles Lecture 12: Interaction between EM field and matter: EM field Matter Quantum theory EM field made from photon particles. But photons can also explain the electromagnetic force. Quantum electrodynamics Forces as particles How do photons create a force? A ball is thrown between two boats. Forces as particles How do photons create a force? A ball is thrown between two boats. Conservation of momentum: mb vb mB v B mB v B mb vb As green man throws the ball, he moves to the right As blue man catches the ball, he moves to the left The boats feel a repulsive force Men fight for the ball Boats feel an attractive force Forces as particles How do photons create a force? 2 electrons are repelled (Coulomb force) by exchanging a photon Forces as particles How do photons create a force? 2 electrons are repelled (Coulomb force) by exchanging a photon The electron and positron are attracted (Coulomb force) by exchanging a photon Quantum description of Coulomb force. Quantum electrodynamics (QED) Forces as particles How about other forces? Gravity N P Nuclear N P Weak e radioactive decay Are all forces transmitted by particles? Forces as particles How about other forces? The nuclear force holds protons and neutrons together in an atom’s nucleus Without the nuclear force, the protons would be repelled by the Coulomb force. In 1935, Physicist Hideki Yukawa (日本人) predicted the particle for the nuclear force. he called it a ‘meson’ Greek word for ‘intermediate’ me < mmeson < mp But does this particle exist? because he predicted the mass to be between the proton and electron: Forces as particles Hunting particles: How do you look for a particle? Cosmic radiation: High energy particles from space. 1930s: only source of high energy particles (Now, we can use particle accelerators: 加速器) American Physicist Carl Anderson found particle with mass 207me ? 1me 207me 2000me This particle is named the muon. 2 types of muon were found: µ µ + (antiparticle) Could this muon = the meson? Forces as particles µ The muon’s mass ' predicted meson mass meson But the muon only interacted weakly with the nucleons (protons and neutrons) µ Cannot transmit nuclear force. The muon is not the meson. In 1947,Yukawa’s meson was discovered (also in cosmic radiation). This meson was named a pion 1me 270me 2000me + ⇡ 3 types of pions: positive ⇡ negative ⇡0 neutral The name ‘meson’ now means a particle with particular properties. A pion is a type of meson. Can we put all particles into groups? Forces as particles Put these particles in order of mass (lightest to heaviest): (A) electron, pion, muon, proton (B) pion, electron, muon, proton (C) electron, muon, proton, pion (D) electron, muon, pion, proton (E) pion, electron, proton, muon Quiz Classifying Particles By 1980, over 100 particles had been discovered. Could they be sorted into different particle types? Type 1: Leptons whatever lepton e µ ⌧ electron muon tau ⌫e electron neutrino ⌫µ muon neutrino ⌫⌧ tau neutrino Spin: anti-particles Leptons don’t feel the nuclear force Wait! What is spin? 1 2 Spin Every particle has intrinsic properties: e.g. mass (m) charge (q) Always the same Does not change spin (s) Quantum mechanical property (not used in classical mechanics) 1 Particles can have spin: 2 1 Fermions Bosons leptons are fermions Classifying Particles Type I1: Hadrons Mesons spin: 1 Force! Bosons includes... Force! Hadrons DO feel the nuclear force 2 types of hadrons ⇡+ ⇡ pions ⇡0 ⌘ ⇢ K eta rho kaon .... and others Baryons 1 spin: 2 includes... proton neutron Fermions (much higher mass than leptons) ⇤ ⌃ lambda sigma .... and others Classifying Particles Type I1I: Gauge Bosons: Force carriers N N P P bosons Electromagnetic (QED) Photon (γ) Spin 1 Nuclear (strong) force Gluon (g) Spin 1 Weak force W and Z bosons Spin 1 e Gravity WAIT! ????? W+ W Z Spin 1 + ⇡ Isn’t the carrier for a nuclear force a pion?! Classifying Particles Quiz Which is TRUE? (A) Mesons are bosons, baryons are fermions (B) Mesons are fermions, baryons are bosons (C) Mesons are fermions, baryons are fermions (D) Mesons are bosons, baryons are bosons 1 Fermions spin 2 Bosons spin 1 Classifying Particles Leptons Hadrons Gauge bosons Mesons electron electron neutrino muon muon neutrino tau tau neutrino anti-particles pions ⇡+ ⇡ ⇡0 ⌘ ⇢ K eta rho kaon photon .... and others W+ W Baryons proton neutron lambda ⌃ .... and others sigma Are these really elementary? Z W bosons Z boson ⇤ Many many particles! gluon Quarks Are hadrons really elementary? No! They are made from quarks neutron proton Quarks In 1964, physicists Murray Gell-Mann & George Zweig predicted quarks. They thought hadrons were made from 3 quarks: up quark u down quark d s strange quark u anti-particles d s Quarks carry fractional charge! u 2 + e 3 spin 1 2 d 1 e 3 spin 1 2 s 1 e 3 spin 1 2 Baryons 1 3 quarks : spin (1) 2 q=0 neutron (u, d, d) Mesons quark + anti-quark: spin 1 q=1 proton (u,u,d) pion (u, anti-down) Quarks The real nuclear force Pions transmit the nuclear force, but they are made from quarks The real force is the strong force: Holds quarks together. transmitted by the gluon 3 more quarks were later found: 1974, the charm quark was discovered c 1977, the bottom quark was discovered b 1995, the top quark was discovered t Quarks Which contains quarks? (A) Baryons (B) Leptons (C) Gauge Bosons Quiz e.g. proton neutron ⇤ ⌃ lambda sigma e µ ⌧ electron muon tau ⌫e electron neutrino ⌫µ muon neutrino ⌫⌧ tau neutrino Photon Gluon W/Z bosons W+ W Z The Standard Model The discovery of quarks makes sorting particles much simpler! Gauge bosons u Quarks Leptons c t up charm top photon d s b Z down strange bottom Z boson ⌫e ⌫µ ⌫⌧ W electron muon tau neutrino neutrino neutrino W boson e µ ⌧ g electron muon tau gluon H (+ anti-particles) These particles are called ‘The Standard Model’ Higgs boson Gives particles mass Discovered July 2012 Are we done? In 2012, the Higgs boson was discovered. This was the LAST particle predicted by the Standard Model. H Higgs boson So.... does this explain all Particle Physics? Professor Naoyuki Haba (Hokkaido University) “No!” The Standard Model leaves questions.... Are we done? Problem 1: 3 groups of particles: “3 generations” mass increase u Quarks up d c charm s t top b down strange bottom Leptons ⌫e ⌫µ ⌫⌧ e µ ⌧ electron muon tau electron muon tau neutrino neutrino neutrino Difference between generations is mass Why 3? Why not 4? or 2? The Standard Model cannot explain this. Are we done? Problem 2: Gauge bosons photon Electromagnetic force Einstein’s theory of General Relativity Z Z boson W Amazingly accurate for gravity Weak force W boson g gluon But uses bending of space-time Not quantum! Strong force G? What about gravity? Graviton? Is there a ‘graviton’? ??? Are we done? Problem 3: What is dark matter? Only ~4% of the Universe is made from atoms ~ 75% is energy ~ 21% is ...... something else?? The Standard Model has no possible particle for dark matter! The Standard Model What do you need to build a “simple” Universe? (A) protons, neutrons, electrons (B) protons, electrons, muons (C) electrons, pions, Higgs (D) pions, mesons, muons Quiz The Standard Model Quiz At the start of the 20th Century (~1930s), where did physicists find new particles? (A) particle accelerators (B) from the sun (northern lights) (C) cosmic rays (D) deep underground The Standard Model Quiz What properties did physicist use to classify (sort) the particle ‘zoo’? (A) mass, size, colour, charge (B) charge, shape, spin, density (C) lifetime, charge, colour, density (D) mass, charge, spin, lifetime The Standard Model Quiz How was the particle ‘zoo’ simplified (less elementary particles)? (A) Electrons actually not particles (B) Many particles were found to be the same (C) Quarks predicted (D) Many particles actually molecules The Standard Model What is the force carrier for the electromagnetic force? (A) meson (B) photon (C) gluon (D) W and Z bosons Quiz The Standard Model What is the elementary force carrier for the strong force? (A) meson (B) pion (C) gluon (D) W and Z bosons Quiz The Standard Model What was the “Holy Grail” of particle physics? (A) Dark matter (B) The graviton (C) The gluon (D) The Higgs boson Quiz Good luck! がんばって