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The Immune
System
Innate Immunity
Stress and Immunity
Adaptive Immunity
Cytokines
Antigens
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The Immune
System
(continued)
Humoral Immune Response
Cell-Mediated Immune Response
Development of the Immune System
Immune System Disorders and Clinical Cases
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The Immune System > Innate Immunity
Innate Immunity
• Skin and Mucosae (Surface Barriers)
• Phagocytes
• Natural Killer Cells
• Inflammation
• Antimicrobial Proteins
• Fever
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The Immune System > Stress and Immunity
Stress and Immunity
• Stress and Immunity
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The Immune System > Adaptive Immunity
Adaptive Immunity
• Overview of Adaptive Immunity
• Types of Adaptive Immunity
• Maturation of T Cells
• Lymphocytes
• Antigen-Presenting Cells
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The Immune System > Cytokines
Cytokines
• Types of Cytokines Participating in Immune Response
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The Immune System > Antigens
Antigens
• Antigens and Antigen Receptors
• Complete Antigens and Haptens
• Antigenic Determinants and Processing Pathways
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The Immune System > Humoral Immune Response
Humoral Immune Response
• Clonal Selection and B-Cell Differentiation
• Structure and Function of Antibodies
• Role of the Complement System in Immunity
• Immunological Memory
• Major Histocompatibility Complex Antigens (Self-Antigens)
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The Immune System > Cell-Mediated Immune Response
Cell-Mediated Immune Response
• Clonal Selection and T-Cell Differentiation
• Specific T-Cell Roles
• Active and Passive Humoral Immunity
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The Immune System > Development of the Immune System
Development of the Immune System
• Development of the Immune System
• Aging and the Immune System
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The Immune System > Immune System Disorders and Clinical Cases
Immune System Disorders and Clinical Cases
• Immunodeficiencies
• Autoimmune Diseases
• Hypersensitivity
• Metastasis Through Lymphatic Vessels
• Ruptured Spleen
• Microbial Evasion of Phagocytosis
• Abscesses and Ulcers
• Cytokine Therapy
• Graft Rejection and Tissue Typing
• Organ Transplants
• Monoclonal Antibodies
• Cancer Immunology
• Is Being Too Clean a Bad Thing?
• Infectious Mononucleosis
• Lymphomas
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The Immune System > Immune System Disorders and Clinical Cases
• Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
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Appendix
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The Immune System
Key terms
• abscess A cavity caused by tissue destruction, usually because of infection, filled with pus and surrounded by inflamed tissue.
• adduct A complex molecule formed by the combination of two or more molecules. A complete antigen is the adduct of a hapten
and a carrier.
• allograft A surgical transplant of tissue between genetically different individuals of the same species; a homograft or
homotransplant.
• amphipathic A molecule that has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups, which allow it to adhere to lipid structures more
easily.
• antigen A substance that induces an immune response, usually foreign.
• antigen A substance that induces an immune response, usually a molecule found on a pathogen, such as a toxin or molecule
expressed by the pathogen or pathogen-infected cells.
• antigen presenting cell A cell that presents captured antigens to immature T-cells. Dendritic cells and macrophages are the
best examples, but several other cells can present antigens as well.
• antimicrobial resistance Any mechanism that enables bacteria to evade or inhibit antimicrobial action.
• aphthous ulcer An ulcer in the mouth, caused by a break in the mucous membrane.
• apoptosis A response in which a cell undergoes programmed cell death, in which the cell and its DNA and other components
are destroyed completely. It is a mechanism to stop viral infections, cancer development, and is a result of cellular stress.
• arachidonic acid pathway The pathway by which the fever regulator prostaglandin E-2, as well as several inflammatory
mediators are produced by pyrogen activity with phospolipids and COX-2, usually in the brain or liver.
• Artificially acquired passive immunity Passive immunity gained from transfer of antibodies produced by another organism. This
form of immunity is short lived.
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The Immune System
• autoantigen Any antigen that stimulates auto antibodies in the organism that produced it.
• autograft Transfer of tissue from one part of the body to another part of the body through surgical procedures
• autoimmune diseases Arise from an inappropriate immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally
present in the body
• barrier immune system A component of the innate immune system that refers to the physical and chemical barriers that prevent
pathogens from entering and infecting the body.
• C5a A complement protein that is an acute phase inflammatory mediator, causing vasodilation and neutrophil chemotaxis.
• cancer immunology Study of interactions between the immune system and cancer cells.
• cancer immunosurveillance Hypothesis that lymphocytes act as sentinels in recognizing and eliminating continuously arising,
nascent transformed cells, and appears to be an important host protection process that inhibits carcinogenesis and maintains
regular cellular homeostasis.
• capsule The renal capsule is a tough fibrous layer surrounding the kidney and covered in a thick layer of perinephric adipose
tissue which provides some protection from trauma and damage.
• cell-mediated immunity Adaptive immunity that is not controlled by antibodies, and is instead mediated directly by immune cells
themselves, most notably type 1 helper T cells and cytotoxic T-cells.
• chemokine Any of various cytokines, produced during inflammation, that organize the leukocytes by providing a stimuli for
chemotaxis.
• chronic rejection Occurs over a period of time after transplant
• Clonal selection A theory that states that lymphocytes bear antigen receptors before activation, and that random mutations
during clonal expansion cause the development of lymphocytes with high binding affinities for their antigen.
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The Immune System
• Clonal selection The idea that lymphocytes have antigen specific binding receptors before they encounter with an antigen, and
are selected to proliferate because they have the specific antigen receptor needed during an adaptive immune response.
• common cause hypothesis Predicts that common disease-causing alleles, or variants, will be found in all human populations
which manifest a given disease
• Cortisol The hormone that facilitates the physiological response to stress by raising blood sugar to increase cellular
metabolism, activating the symapthetic nervous system, and suppressing the inflammatory response.
• cytokine Any of various small regulatory proteins or glycoproteins that regulate the cells of the immune system.
• cytotoxic Of or relating to cytotoxicity.
• cytotoxic hypersensitivity Antibodies produced by the immune response bind to antigens on the patient's own cell surfaces
• delayed hypersensitivity the reaction takes two to three days to develop
• epitope That part of a biomolecule (such as a protein) that is the target of an immune response
• Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) Virus responsible for causing infectious mononucelosis.
• extravasion
• exudate Protein rich edema caused by proteins flowing into the tissues during inflammation, which is due to increased vascular
permeability and oncotic pressure.
• hapten Any small molecule that can elicit an immune response only when attached to a large carrier such as a protein.
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The Immune System
• Hodgkin's lymphoma A malignant lymphoid neoplasm characterized by the formation of large tumor cells (Reed-Sternberg
cells) in the lymph nodes.
• human leukocyte antigen (HLA) The name of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in humans.
• humoral Of or relating to the body fluids or humors.
• humoral immunity Adaptive immunity which refers to antigen-specific components flowing through the plasma, such as
antibodies, their function, and the cells that produce them.
• hygiene hypothesis Hypothesis states that a lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents, symbiotic microorganisms
(e.g., gut flora or probiotics), and parasites increases susceptibility to allergic diseases by suppressing natural development of
the immune system
• hyperacute rejection manifests severely and within minutes after transplant
• hypersensitivity any heightened immune response to an antigen; an allergy
• hypersensitivity A disorder in which an adaptive immune response forms memory cells specific to antigens that aren't
associated with pathogens.
• IL-10 Also known as human cytokine synthesis inhibitory factor (CSIF), is an anti-inflammatory cytokine.
• immunoglobulin Any of the glycoproteins in blood serum that respond to invasion by foreign antigens and that protect the host
by removing pathogens; an antibody.
• immunomodulator A drug used for its effect on the immune system.
• immunosenescence The gradual deterioration of the immune system caused by the aging process.
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The Immune System
• immunosuppression The active medical suppression of the immune response.
• immunotherapy The treatment of disease by adjusting the body's immune response.
• infectious mononucleosis An infectious, widespread viral disease caused by the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), one type of herpes
virus. Most people are exposed to the virus as children, when the disease produces no noticeable or only flu-like symptoms.
• inflammatory mediator Any chemical released from cells that stimulates the vasodilation and increased permeability that occurs
during acute inflammation.
• isotype A marker corresponding to an antigen found in all members of a subclass of a specific class of immunoglobulins.
• Linear epitopes Epitopes that consist of the primary amino acid structure of a protein that makes up the larger antigen.
• lymphatic The lymphatic system carries a clear fluid called lymph, which is formed from interstitial fluid collected through the
capillaries.
• lymphatic system in mammals, including humans, a network of lymph vessels and lymph nodes that transport fluid, fats,
proteins, and lymphocytes to the bloodstream as lymph, and remove microorganisms and other debris from tissues
• lymphoid vs. myeloid model This model of lymphopoiesis had the virtue of relative simplicity, agreement with nomenclature and
terminology, and is essentially valid for the favorite lab animal, the mouse. pHSC pluripotent, self-renewing, hematopoietic stem
cells which give rise to MPP multipotent progenitors, which give rise to ELP (or PRO) Prolymphocytes, early lymphoid
progenitors, and finally to the CLP Common lymphoid progenitor, a cell type fully committed to the lymphoid lineage. pHSC,
MPP and ELP cells are not fully committed to the lymphoid lineage because if one is removed to a different location it may
differentiate into non-lymphoid progeny. However CLP are committed to the lymphoid lineage.
• Major Histocompatability Complex I A molecule expressed on cells to signal to immune system cells that those cells are normal
cells of that organism's body. Abbreviated as MHC I.
• mannan-binding-lectin A carbohydrate-binding-protein that binds to carbohydrates on pathogens to activate the lectin
complement pathway.
• membrane attack complex The final complex of all complement system pathways that lyses the pathogen. It is composed of
C5b, C6, C7, C8, and C9.
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The Immune System
• memory B cell A B cell sub-type that is formed following primary infection where the cell recognizes a specific epitope.
• Memory T cells A type of T cell that rapdily differentiates into many helper and cytotoxic T cells should the antigen of the
Memory T cell be detected again.
• monoclonal antibody Monoclonal antibodies (mAb or moAb) are monospecific antibodies that are the same because they are
made by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell. Monoclonal antibodies have monovalent affinity, in
that they bind to the same epitope
• mucous membranes Specialized epithelium for internal and semi-internal structures that usually secrete mucus and provide
some barrier immune system function.
• Natural Killer T cells A heterogeneous group of T cells that share properties of both T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, and
recognize the non-polymorphic CD1d molecule, an antigen-presenting molecule that binds self- and foreign lipids and
glycolipids instead of MHC.
• negative selection The process by which T cells are screened so that ones with a high affinity for binding to self antigens (and
potentially causing autoimmunity) are destroyed.
• organ transplantation Moving of an organ from one body to another (or from a donor site on the patient's own body)
• oxidative burst A chemical reaction that occurs in phagocytes, in which an engulfed pathogen is destroyed by exposure to
oxidative stress from reactive oxygen species.
• paratope That part of the molecule of an antibody that binds to an antigen
• peptide A class of organic compounds consisting of various numbers of amino acids in which the amine of one is reacted with
the carboxylic acid of the next to form anamide bond.
• phagocyte A cell of the immune system, such as a neutrophil, macrophage or dendritic cell, that engulfs and destroys viruses,
bacteria and waste materials, or, in the case of mature dendritic cells, displays antigens from invading pathogens to cells of the
lymphoid lineage.
• Plasma Cell A type of B cell that produces most of the antibodies during development of adaptive immune response.
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The Immune System
• PMN granulocyte A type of phagocyte that contains PMN granules, most notably neutrophils and mast cells, but also includes
basophiles and eosinophils.
• Positive selection The process by which T cells are screened so that only ones capable of binding to MHC are kept alive.
• primary immunodeficiency Any of the many genetic disorders due to an aspect of the body's immune system being either
absent or failing to function normally.
• pyrogen Any substance that produces fever, or a rise in body temperature, through the arachidonic acid pathway.
• secondary immune response The act of being exposed to the same pathogen after the initial immune response. Memory B and
T cells will work to rapidly eliminate the pathogen to prevent reinfection.
• shoot system the network of new vascular plant growth, which can include stems, flowering stems with flower buds, and leaves
• spleen In vertebrates, including humans, a ductless vascular gland, located in the left upper abdomen near the stomach, which
destroys old red blood cells, removes debris from the bloodstream, acts as a reservoir of blood, and produces lymphocytes.
• stress Emotional pressure suffered by a human being or other animal.
• suppression immunotherapies Therapy which dampens an abnormal immune response in autoimmune diseases or reduces a
normal immune response to prevent rejection of transplanted organs or cells
• Systemic lupus erythematosus Systemic lupus erythematosus, often abbreviated to SLE or lupus, is a systemic autoimmune
disease that can affect any part of the body. As with other autoimmune diseases, the immune system attacks the body's own
cells and tissue, resulting in inflammation and tissue damage.
• The Exogenous Pathway A pathway for antigen processing in which phagocytized pathogens are broken down from within the
cell, and their broken down antigens bind with MHC II, which then is expressed on the surface of the antigen presenting cell.
• thymus A ductless gland, consisting mainly of primary lymphatic tissue, and is the site of lymphocyte maturation and selection.
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The Immune System
• tissue typing A procedure in which the tissues of a prospective donor and recipient are tested for compatibility prior to
transplantation
• vaccination Inoculation with the weakened form of a pathogen in order to protect against particular disease or strain of disease,
by stimulating the development of immunological memory against that pathogen.
• western blot The western blot (sometimes called the protein immunoblot) is an analytical technique used to detect specific
proteins in the given sample of tissue homogenate or extract. It uses gel electrophoresis to separate proteins by 3-D structure
or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide.
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The Immune System
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
High magnification micrograph of hypersensitivity pneumonitis, also known as extrinsic allergic alveolitis.
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The Immune System
New Mixed Myeloid-Lymphoid Progenitor Tree(RCCH) Grayscale
Side by side comparison of the new and old lineage models.
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The Immune System
Hygiene Hypothesis: Children in the Past
Children who had close contact with animals and a dirty environment were less likely to suffer from allergies.
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The Immune System
Capsule Evasion
Bacterial cells of Staphylococcus aureus: its large capsule protects the organism from attack by immunological defenses.
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The Immune System
Antigen presentation
In the upper pathway; foreign protein or antigen (1) is taken up by an antigen-presenting cell (2). The antigen is processed and displayed on a MHC II
molecule (3), which interacts with a T helper cell (4). In the lower pathway; whole foreign proteins are bound by membrane antibodies (5) and presented
to B lymphocytes (6), which process (7) and present antigen on MHC II (8) to a previously activated T helper cell (10), spurring the production of antigenspecific antibodies (9).
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The Immune System
Genetic Immodeficiencies
Chart showing locations of malfunction leading to common errors of lymphocyte development.
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The Immune System
Butterfly Rash of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Typical SLE rash presents across the cheekbones or malar region of the face.
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Wikipedia. "Systemic lupus erythematosus." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_lupus_erythematosus View on Boundless.com
The Immune System
Action of cytokines
Mechanisms underlaying the inflammation in COPD. Airway epithelium has complex structure: consists of at least seven diverse cell types interacting
with each other by means of tight junctions. Moreover, epithelial calls can deliver the signals into the underlying tissues taking part in the mechanisms of
innate and adaptive immune defence. The key transmitters of the signals are dendritic cells. Once pathogenic bacterium (e.g., S. pneumoniae, P.
aeruginosa) has activated particular pattern recognition receptors on/in epithelial cells, the proinflammatory signaling pathways are activated. This
results mainly in IL-1, IL-6 and IL-8 production. These cytokines induce the chemotaxis to the site of infection in its target cells (e.g., neutrophils, dendritic
cells and macrophages).
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The Immune System
Cells of the Immune System
Various cells that participate in immune functions. Note that even though hematopoietic stem cell, erythrocyte, maegakaryocyte and platelets are found
in the blood, they do not participate in immune functions.
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The Immune System
Antibody showing antigen binding sites
Schematic diagram of an antibody and antigens. Light chains are in lighter blue and orange, heavy chains in darker blue and orange.
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The Immune System
Hypersensitivity
Image shows diffuse ground glass pattern identified of typical centrilobular nodule in a patient with hypersensitivity pneumonitis, often caused by
occupational exposure to dust.
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The Immune System
Revised Lineage Myelo-lymphoid flowchart.
Revised Lineage Myelo-lymphoid flowchart.
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The Immune System
First Heart Transplant
The restored scene from Dr. Barnard's first human heart transplantation - the world's most famous heart of young donor Denise Duval.
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The Immune System
Autoimmune Response
Erythema multiform is a rash that appears as an auto-immune response to a predisposing agent: a bacteria, an immunization, an antibiotic (in this case,
amoxicillin).
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The Immune System
Metastatic Breast Cancer
Micrograph showing a lymph node invaded by ductal breast carcinoma and with extranodal extension of tumour. The dark purple (center) is lymphocytes
(part of a normal lymph node). Surrounding the lymphocytes and extending into the surrounding fat (top of image) is ductal breast carcinoma.
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The Immune System
Analyzing Monoclonal Antibodies
Two researchers looking at slides of cultures of cells that make monoclonal antibodies. These are grown in a lab, and researchers are analyzing the
products to select the most promising.
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The Immune System
Lung Tissue Transplant Rejection
Very high magnification micrograph of a Masson body seen in lung transplant rejection.
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The Immune System
Metastatic Colorectal Cancer
Micrograph of a colorectal adenocarcinoma metastasis to a lymph node, also lymph node metastasis. The cancer (forming glands) is seen at the centretop. Adipose tissue is present on the upper right.
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The Immune System
Main Symptoms of Infectious Mononucleosis
This graph illustrates the location of the symptoms.
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The Immune System
Lymphoma
Macroscopic aspect of the cut surface of a human lymph node replaced by lymphoma. The node was about 6 x 4 cm (2.5" x 1.5"). The lymphoma is the
nodules of pinkish tissue surrounded by yellowish fatty tissue. Upon histological examination, the node contained follicular lymphoma.
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The Immune System
Growing Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies can be grown in unlimited quantities in the bottles shown in this picture.
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The Immune System
Ruptured Spleen
Spleen ruptured by trauma
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The Immune System
Abcess
An abscess is a collection of pus (dead neutrophils) that has accumulated in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an infectious process (usually
caused by bacteria or parasites) or other foreign materials (e.g. splinters, bullet wounds, or injecting needles).
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The Immune System
Antibody
Each antibody binds to a specific antigen; an interaction similar to a lock and key.
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The Immune System
Dermis
A diagrammatic view of a skin section.
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The Immune System
Dendritic cell
Dendritic cell characterized by membranous projections that resemble spines.
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The Immune System
Leukocyte Differentiation
Phagocytes derive from stem cells in the bone marrow. Monocytes differentiate into dendritic cells and macrophages, while mast cells and neutrophils
are in a separate group of PMN granuolcytes as well.
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The Immune System
Extravasion of Neutrophils
Neutrophils move through the blood to the site of infection by rolling onto the vascular endothelium, and adhering to it in order to slip through small gaps
into the tissues during an inflammatory response.
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The Immune System
Types of Adaptive Immunity
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The Immune System
Inflammation
Toes inflamed by chilblains
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The Immune System
Complementary activities of cytotoxic T-cells and NK cells
Schematic diagram indicating the complementary activities of cytotoxic T-cells and NK cells. T-cells are activated by recognizing antigens, while NK cells
are activated by not recognizing MHC I.
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The Immune System
The modes of action by antimicrobial peptides
Antimicrobial peptides multiple various modes of action.
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The Immune System
Mechanism of Selectivity of Antimicrobial Peptides
Cell membranes of bacteria are different from the cell membranes of plants and animals and are preferentially targeted by the antimicrobial proteins.
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The Immune System
Skin Ulcer
Erythema nodosum—lesions that occur in some patients suffering from inflammatory bowel syndrome.
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The Immune System
Performance of the various types of fever
Performance of the various types of fever; a) Fever continues b) Fever continues to abrupt onset and remission c) Fever remittent d) Intermittent fever e)
Undulant fever f) Relapsing fever
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The Immune System
Antigen presentation
Antigen presentation stimulates T cells to become either "cytotoxic" CD8+ cells or "helper" CD4+ cells. Cytotoxic cells directly attack other cells carrying
certain foreign or abnormal molecules on their surfaces. Helper T cells, or Th cells, coordinate immune responses by communicating with other cells. In
most cases, T cells only recognize an antigen if it is carried on the surface of a cell by one of the body's own MHC, or major histocompatibility complex,
molecules.
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The Immune System
Antibody
An antibody is made up of two heavy chains and two light chains. The unique variable region allows an antibody to recognize its matching antigen
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The Immune System
Blood cells
Scanning electron micrograph of T lymphocyte (right), a platelet (center), and a red blood cell (left).
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The Immune System
Immunity
Flow chart diagram depicting the divisions of Immunity Natural immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent, when the contact was not
deliberate, where as artificial immunity develops only through deliberate actions of exposure. Both natural and artificial immunity can be further
subdivided, depending on the amount of time the protection lasts. Passive immunity is short lived, and usually lasts only a few months, whereas
protection via active immunity lasts much longer, and is sometimes life-long.
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The Immune System
Lymphocyte
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a single human lymphocyte.
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The Immune System
Interleukin-1
Crystallographic structure of human interleukin.
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The Immune System
Fluorescein Molecule
Fluorescein is an example of a hapten used in molecular biology.
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The Immune System
Antigen-Binding Site of an Antibody
Antigen-binding sites can recognize different epitopes on an antigen.
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The Immune System
T-dependent B cell activation
T cell-dependent B cell activation, showing a TH2-cell (left), B cell (right), and several interaction molecules
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The Immune System
The Classical and Alternative Complement Pathways
The classical and alternative complement pathways start off differently, but end in the same cascade of complement proteins that combine to form a
membrane attack complex.
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The Immune System
Immune response
When B and T cells begin to replicate, some of the offspring that they produce will end up becoming long-lived memory cells. These memory cells will
remember all specific pathogens encountered during the animal's lifetime and can thus call forth a strong response if the pathogen ever invades the body
again.
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The Immune System
MHC Class I processing
MHC class I pathway: proteins in the cytosol are degraded by the proteasome, liberating peptides internalized by TAP channel in the endoplasmic
reticulum, there associating with MHC-I molecules freshly synthesized. MHC-I/peptide complexes enter Golgi apparatus, are glycosylated, enter
secratory vesicles, fuse with the cell membrane, and externalize on the cell membrane interacting with T lymphocytes.
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The Immune System
MHC Class II
MHC class II protein molecule.
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The Immune System
MHC Class I
MHC class I protein molecule.
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The Immune System
Clonal selection of lymphocytes
A hematopoietic stem cell undergoes differentiation and genetic rearrangement to produce lymphocytes in the immune system. Clonal selection of
lymphocytes: 1) A hematopoietic stem cell undergoes differentiation and genetic rearrangement to produce 2) immature lymphocytes with many different
antigen receptors. Those that bind to 3) antigens from the body's own tissues are destroyed, while the rest mature into 4) inactive lymphocytes. Most of
these will never encounter a matching 5) foreign antigen, but those that do are activated and produce 6) many clones of themselves.
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The Immune System
T cell Activation
T cells become activated upon encountering a pathogen and can become either cytoxic T or helper T cells.
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The Immune System
Innate and adaptive immunity in the immune system
This chart depicts the different divisions of immunity.
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The Immune System
Attribution
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• Wikipedia. "T cell." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_cell
• Wiktionary. "Hodgkin's lymphoma." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hodgkin's+lymphoma
• Wikipedia. "Lymphomas." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphomas
• Wiktionary. "spleen." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spleen
• Wikipedia. "Ruptured spleen." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruptured_spleen
• Wikipedia. "Splenectomy." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splenectomy
• Wiktionary. "immunoglobulin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/immunoglobulin
• Wikipedia. "western blot." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/western%20blot
• Wikipedia. "monoclonal antibody." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/monoclonal%20antibody
• Wikipedia. "Monoclonal antibody therapy." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody_therapy
• Wikipedia. "Monoclonal antibodies." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoclonal_antibodies
• Wiktionary. "phagocyte." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phagocyte
• Wikipedia. "capsule." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/capsule
• Wikipedia. "Phagocyte." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocyte%23Pathogen_evasion_and_resistance
• Wiktionary. "immunosuppression." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/immunosuppression
• Wiktionary. "Systemic lupus erythematosus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Systemic+lupus+erythematosus
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• Wikipedia. "Systemic Lupus Erythematosus." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_Lupus_Erythematosus
• Wiktionary. "hapten." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hapten
• Wikipedia. "Hapten." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hapten
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• Wiktionary. "autograft." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/autograft
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• Wikipedia. "Organ transplantation." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_transplantation
• Wiktionary. "chemotaxis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chemotaxis
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• Wikipedia. "epithelial cells." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/epithelial%20cells
• Wikipedia. "Phagocyte." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocyte
• Wikipedia. "Cytotoxic T cells." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytotoxic%20T%20cells
• Wikipedia. "Natural killer cell." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_killer_cell
• Wiktionary. "amphipathic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amphipathic
• Wiktionary. "peptide." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peptide
• Wikipedia. "Antimicrobial peptides." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptides
• Wiktionary. "stress." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stress
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• Wikipedia. "Stress (biology)." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(biology)%23Immune_response
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The Immune System
• Wiktionary. "lymphatic system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lymphatic+system
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/lymphatic
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• Wikipedia. "Metastasis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastasis
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• Wikipedia. "T cell epitopes." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%20cell%20epitopes
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The Immune System
• Wikipedia. "delayed hypersensitivity." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/delayed%20hypersensitivity
• Wikibooks. "Immunology/Hypersensitivity." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology/Hypersensitivity
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• Wikipedia. "Humoral immunity." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humoral_immunity
• Wikipedia. "Passive immunity." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_immunity
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• Wikipedia. "Immunotherapy." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunotherapy
• Wikipedia. "B cells." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%20cells
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The Immune System
• Wiktionary. "T cells." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/T+cells
• Wikipedia. "natural killer (NK) cells." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/natural%20killer%20(NK)%20cells
• Wikipedia. "Lymphocyte." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphocyte
• Wiktionary. "integumentary system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/integumentary+system
• Wikipedia. "Mucous membrane." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membrane
• Wikipedia. "Mucosal immune system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucosal_immune_system
• Wikipedia. "Skin." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin
• Wikipedia. "Intestinal mucosa." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_mucosa%23Mucosa
• Wiktionary. "pyrogen." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pyrogen
• Wiktionary. "thermoregulation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thermoregulation
• Wikipedia. "Fever." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever
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• Wikipedia. "Cytokines." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokines
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The Immune System
• Wikipedia. "T cell." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_cell
• Wikibooks. "Immunology/Introduction." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology/Introduction
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The Immune System
• Wikipedia. "Antibodies." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibodies
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• Wiktionary. "antigen." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/antigen
• Wiktionary. "macrophage." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/macrophage
• Wiktionary. "antibody." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/antibody
• Wikipedia. "Adaptive immune system." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system
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