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Transcript
MACROMOLECULES • Macromolecules (1000’s of atoms and weigh over 100,000 daltons) • 4 Kinds of macromolecules: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids (know this in your sleep!) MACROMOLECULES ARE: POLYMERS: chainlike molecules made up of MONOMERS: (the repeated units) Diversity of Polymers – different sequences of the basic 40-50 monomers How do monomers make polymers? Condensation /Dehydration reaction: One monomer provides an ‘–OH’ and the other provides a ‘-H’ and together these form H2O H2O is REMOVED; Covalent bond is formed between MONOMERS = Polymers are made! Needs ATP and Enzymes Anabolic/biosynthesis reactions use this to make macromolecules for growth/replacement How do polymers break up? Hydrolysis Reaction: Covalent Bond is broken; H2O is added across the broken bond Polymers make Monomers Provides ATP and Uses Enzymes Used for digestion, cell respiration I) Sugars are all - Carbohydrates Monomer Unit of Carbohydrates called: Monosaccharides Polymer called Polysaccharide General formula: [CH2O]n – For example, glucose has the formula C6H12O6. – Most names for sugars end in -ose. SUCROSE (from cane sugar) FRUCTOSE (from FRUIT!!) MALTOSE (from ‘Malt’ – a fermentation product) DEXTROSE (=glucose) LACTOSE (from MILK) Monosaccharide Classification Overview: 1) Based on Aldehyde or Ketone Functional group (aldose/ketose) 2) Number of Carbon atoms (pentose, hexose…) 3) Arrangement of Carbon Atoms - Isomers 4) Straight chain or ring structure - Know how to identify a simple sugar/monosachcharide by sight as a ring structure and a straight chain structure Know the glycosidic linkage is represented as an -Owhen 2 monosachcharides are connected Monosaccharide Classification 1) Based on Functional Group: • KETOSE = Ketone function group (C=O) • ALDOSE = Aldehyde functional group (-CHO) FRUCTOSE GLUCOSE Monosaccharide Classification 2) Based on Number of Carbons: HEXOSE = 6 C PENTOSE = 5 C TRIOSE = 3C RIBOSE (5) GLUCOSE (6) Monosaccharide Classification 3) Based on Arrangement of Carbon Atoms: Enantiomers: Isomers (Glucose and Galactose) No test ques. on this for your level! Monosaccharide Classification 4) Based on Ring Structure : Linear monomers form rings in solutions (Alpha and Beta Rings – based on plane of –OH -skip details) Monosaccharide to Disaccharide (dehydration reaction) - Important Disaccharides (Sucrose – table sugar, Lactose – Milk, Maltose – Beer) Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose Glucose + Galactose = Lactose Glucose + Glucose = Maltose Monosaccharide to Disaccharide A Glucose monomer and a fructose monomer can be joined using a GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE to form SUCROSE (know to identify this link) SUCROSE is a DISACCHARIDE SUCROSE Glucose Fructose Monosaccharide to Disaccharide A Glucose monomer and a fructose monomer can be joined using a GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE to form SUCROSE SUCROSE (table sugar) is a DISACCHARIDE SUCROSE Glucose Fructose Monosaccharide to Polysaccharide - 1000’s of monosaccharides join up to form POLYSACCHARIDES G + G + G + G + = ……………… Polysaccharide Carbohydrate Review Monosacharrides Disacharrides (glucose, fructose) (sucrose, lactose) Condensation/dehydration reaction Polysacharrides Structural Storage Cellulose + Chitin Starch + Glycogen (Plant) (Animals) a) Storage Polysaccharides 1) STARCH (in potatoes – ‘stored NRG’ in plants) MONOMER is Glucose Links up to form starch many, many glucose molecs) a) Storage Polysaccharides 1) STARCH has 2 polymers: (skip details) 1-4 linkage of Glucose Monomers (amylose -helical) 1-6 linkages causes branching (amylopectin) a) Storage Polysaccharides 2) GLYCOGEN (in animals – ‘stored ATP’ in muscle and liver) MONOMERS – Glucose b) Structural Polysaccharides 1) CELLULOSE (in plant cell wall) Monomers-Glucose 1-4 linkage b) Structural Polysaccharides 2) CHITIN (in exoskeleton of arthropods) Monomers-Glucose Glucose has a ‘-N group’ attached Starch Test – Lugol’s Iodine Benedict’s Test • Will be positive for Reducing Sugars (monosaccharides, disaccharides except sucrose) Benedict’s Test • CuSO4 Cu++ + SO4-- • 2 Cu++ + Reducing Sugar Cu+ (electron donor) • Cu+ Cu2O II) Lipids Lipids – are hydrophobic (mostly hydrocarbons) They are NOT polymers Important classes: FATS, PHOSPHOLIPIDS, and STEROIDS FATS Fats– are triglycerides - have glycerol and fattyacids linked up by an ‘ester’ bond Glycerol is a 3C alcohol Fatty acid is RCOOH and can have long hydrophobic C-H chains- these can have double bonds or single bonds or a mixture Saturated fats - solids at room temp. - have all Carbons SATURATED - that means every carbon has max. number of hydrogen attached Ex. butter Unsaturated fats - liquid at room temp. - have some Carbons UNSATURATED that means DOUBLE BONDS from some carbons having less than max. number of hydrogen attached Ex. Oil. DOUBLE BONDS = freedom of movement! CARCINOGENIC Percent Fatty Acid Present in Triglycerides Fat or Oil Saturated Palmitic Unsaturated Stearic Oleic Linoleic Other Animal Origin Butter 29 9 27 4 31 Lard 30 18 41 6 5 Beef 32 25 38 3 2 Vegetable Origin Corn oil 10 4 34 48 4 Soybean 7 3 25 56 9 Peanut 7 5 60 21 7 Olive 6 4 83 7 - Artherosclerosis-plaque in artery Fat Substitutes • Olestra - sucrose (sugar) with fatty acids (No digestion!!) • Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils: Peanut Butter, Shortening, Margarine Fat Functions • Energy Storage (1 gm of fat = 2 gm starch; fat- 4 cal/gm) • Plants use starch to store energy (bulky); seeds have oil • Animals – store energy as fat • Insulation; Protect vital organs • Absorption of Vitamins K, E, D, A Phospholipids • Fatty acids •• (hydrophobic)+ Two fatty acids Phosphate glycerol+ attached to–ve Group is phosphate group glycerol and a • +polar R – fatty acid group phosphate (hydrophilic) hydrocarbon group thetails • The fattyatacid chain third position are hydrophobic, • X – other but the phosphate groups group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head • -know to recognize it! Steroids • Consist of 4 fused rings • Cholesterol, sex hormones • Vary in functional groups Lipid Test • Brown paper turns translucent with lipid (grease test) • Sudan IV Test: Proteins • Proteios – first place!! • Polymers made up of Amino Acid Monomers Amino Acids • Have Carboxyl (COOH) and amino groups (NH2) • Center – Alpha Carbon • ‘R’ – 20 different possibilities = 20 amino acids • Ionized at neutral pH inside the cell (COOand NH3+) Amino Acids • Hydrophobic ‘R’ groups Amino Acids • Hydrophilic Polar ‘R’ groups Amino Acids • Electrically charged ‘R’ groups (Acidic/ Basic; also hydrophilic) Amino Acids • Peptide Bond Formation: (O=C-NH) Dehydration reaction linking amino acid monomers into a polypeptide chain- know this bond! Amino Acids • Primary Structure: Sequence of amino acid chain - is it ValHis-Leu… or ValGlu-Leu…. • Change in Primary Structure can cause protein to function abnormally (DUH!) Lysozyme Helix Pleated Sheets Amino Acids • Secondary Structure: Result of H Bonding between O=C and N-H (atoms in this secondary structure are in the polypeptide backbone) • Helix (coils) – every 4th aa linked • Pleated Sheets (folds) Amino Acids • Tertiary Structure: Result of H Bonding between side chain ‘R’ groups H bonds among polar and/or charged groups; ionic bonds between charged R groups, and hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals interactions among hydrophobic Rgroups Disulfide Bridges (know this is important in tertiary structure!) Amino Acids • Quarternary Structure: Result of noncovalent interactions between polypeptide chains Dimers, Trimers, Tetramers – aggregations of many polypeptide subunits Why is folding important? “Diseased prions induce healthy prion proteins to change their shape, and clusters of disease build, leaving holes in the brain.” – SF Chronicle Denaturation • Protein Denaturation – Loss of biological activity • Loss of Native Confirmation/folding due to changes in pH, salt concentration, temperature • Protein can come back to original confirmation (Renatured) Chaperonins • The folding of many proteins is protected in cells by chaperonin proteins that shield out bad influences. Biuret Test • Biuret Reagent has CuSO4 and KOH • Blue-violet = proteins • Purple/pink = peptides • Will not detect free amino acids Nucleic Acids • Amino Acid Sequence of a Polypeptide is coded by a GENE • A gene is a specific sequence of DNA • DNA is made of Nucleic Acids Nucleic Acids • GENE codes for a messenger RNA in the nucleus • mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm • Protein is synthesized using the mRNA Nucleic Acids • DNA and RNA are Nucleic Acids • Nucleic Acids are Polymers • The monomers are called NUCLEOTIDES Nucleotides • NUCLEOTIDES are made of: • Pentose Sugar • Nitrogen Base • Phosphate group NucleotidesNitrogen Base • Nitrogen Base can be of 2 types: • Purine – 2 rings; Adenine and Guanine • Pyrimidine – 1 ring; Cytosine, Uracil, and Thymine NucleotidesNitrogen Base • Purines and Pyrimidines bond with each other • A can form a bond with T or U • G can form a bond with C Nucleotides-Sugar • Pentose Sugar is Ribose • DNA has Deoxy Ribose • RNA has Ribose NucleosidesNo Phosphate group • Pentose Sugar + Nitrogen Base Nucleotides • Pentose Sugar + Nitrogen Base + Phosphate Nucleotides join together to make Nucleic Acids Sugar – Phosphate backbone DNA is a double helix – 2 strands are complementary 1953 DNA Spooling