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AP Final Exam
Review
Harry Harlow Experiment
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The young monkeys for
the most part ignored
the wire mother, even if
she
had food.
They became strongly
attached to the cloth
mother, whether she
gave food or not.
The touching mattered,
not the feeding. Harlow
called this contact
comfort or tactile touch.
Attachment goes
beyond nourishment
Social desirability bias
 A term
used in scientific research to
describe the tendency of respondents to
reply in a manner that will be viewed
favorably by others. This will generally
take the form of over reporting good
behavior or underreporting bad behavior.

Amygdala [ah-MIG-dah-la]


two almond-shaped neural clusters that are
components of the limbic system and are
linked to emotion
Damage may cause an inability to detect the
emotional significance of facial expressions,
especially expression of fear.
The Lobes of the Brain
 The
cerebrum is two hemispheres
connected by a band of fibers called the
corpus callosum
 Divided into lobes




Occipital- vision
Parietal- senses from all over the body
Temporal- hearing, memory, speaking
Frontal- creative thinking, planning
Homeostasis- Our body’s tendency to maintain a
balanced state to survive
Belief perseverance-- clinging to one’s initial
conceptions after the basis on which they were
formed has been discredited
Stereotype threat--fear that one's behavior will
confirm an existing stereotype of a group with
which one identifies
Permissive parenting– children are
allowed to do what they wish; no clear
rules are enforced
Dissociation--conscious awareness
becomes separated (dissociated) from
previous memories, thoughts, and feelings
• Dissociative disorder--a disorder in which a
person experiences alterations in memory,
identity, or consciousness
• Dissociative amnesia--the inability to recall
important personal events or information;
usually associated with stressful events
• Dissociative fugue--a dissociative disorder
in which a person suddenly and
unexpectedly travels away from home or
work and is unable to recall the past
• Dissociative identity disorder--a person
exhibits two or more personality states,
each with its own patterns of thinking and
behaving
Schachter’s Two-Factor
Theory of Emotion
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Cognitive
label
“I’m afraid”
 To experience
emotion one
Fear
(emotion)
must:
 be physically
aroused
 cognitively
label the
arousal
Classical Conditioning
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
 stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and
naturally--triggers a response
 Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus
 salivation when food is in the mouth
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
 originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with
an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a
conditioned response
 Conditioned Response (CR)
 learned response to a previously neutral conditioned
stimulus
Anxiety Disorders-Obsessive Compulsive Disorder-uncontrollable pattern of thoughts is
called obsession; repeatedly performing
irrational actions, which is called a
compulsion.
Post-traumatic stress disorder-- victims of
traumatic events experience the original
event in the form of dreams or flashbacks
Phobias– intense, irrational fear of
objects, places, or even people
Predictive validity: Predicts a known
association between the construct you’re
measuring and something else.
 Construct Validity —The extent to which an
assessment corresponds to other variables, as predicted
by some rationale or theory
hypochondriasis, in which a person who is in
good health becomes preoccupied with
imaginary ailments.
Experimental Variables
• Operational definition-- defines the exact manner in which
a variable is measured-- a statement of procedures
(operations) used to define research variables
• To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the variables of the
hypothesis:
– Cause: Independent variable (IV) the one experimenters
change or alter so they can observe its effects
• Marijuana: Plain cigarette versus cigarette containing 5 mg of
THC (the active ingredient in marijuana)
– Effect: Dependent variable (DV) one that changes in relation to
the independent variable.
• Appetite: Grams of ice cream consumed in 1 hour
• The experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV to test
the hypothesis
diathesis-stress model
 Theory that explains behavior as both a result of biological and genetic
factors ("nature"), and life experiences ("nurture").Diathesis is the
heriditary predispostion to a disorder (from the Greek
diathesis=arrangement, from dia=asunder+tithenai=to place).Stress is
the environmental load put on the organism.
 This theory is often used to describe the pronunciation of mental
disorders, like schizophrenia, that are produced by the interaction of a
vulnerable hereditary predisposition, with precipitating events in the
environment. This theory was originally introduced as a means to explain
some of the underlying causes of schizophrenia (Zubin & Spring, 1977).
 In the diathesis-stress model, a genetic vulnerability or predisposition
(diathesis) interacts with the environment and life events (stressors) to
trigger behaviours or psychological disorders. The greater the underlying
vulnerability, the less stress is needed to trigger the behaviour/disorder.
Conversely, where there is a smaller genetic contribution greater life stress
is required to produce the particular result. Even so, someone with a
diathesis towards a disorder does not necessarily mean they will ever
develop the disorder. Both the diathesis and the stress are required for
this to happen.
Negative Reinforcement-- Occurs when an
aversive stimulus is prevented or
eliminated following a behavior. Makes
behavior more likely to recur.
Debriefing- researcher explains the study
to participants after they are finished. It
can reduce problems associated with the
use of deception in research.
Cognitive Approach
This perspective studies the way humans store
and process information; eg: might assess locus
of control
Study the way a person thinks – is it negative,
irrational, faulty, distorted, self-defeating,
unrealistic
Treatment– rational-emotive therapy, Beck’s
cognitive therapy, changing ways of thinking
Behaviorism
 People–
Skinner, Pavlov, Watson
 Operant conditioning, classical
conditioning, observational learning
 Reinforcement, CR, CS, shaping,
modeling
 Treatments– systematic desensitization,
extinction, modeling, counter conditioning,
aversion therapy, biofeedback training,
stress inoculation
Psychoanalytical
 Freud,
Jung, Adler,
 Repression, suppression, unconscious
motives,
 Freud: Stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency,
& genital): personality structure-- id, ego,
superego– dreams= wish fulfillment
 Treatments– free association, dream
analysis, hypnosis, insight therapy,
interpretation of resistance/transference
Biological
 Chemical
& endocrine imbalances, genetic
& hereditary, brain damage,
 Drug treatments, exercise, nutrition
The Humanistic Approach
Key features (2):
•
People strive for ‘actualization’
• Rogers: the self-concept consists of a perceived self and an
ideal self. Psychological health is achieved when the two match
•
Maslow: people have a hierarchy of needs. The goal of
psychological growth is to meet the need to achieve selfactualisation
Fundamental Attribution Error
 tendency for observers, when analyzing
another’s behavior, to underestimate the
impact of the situation and to
overestimate the impact of personal
disposition
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Typical Age
Range
Description
of Stage
Developmental
Phenomena
Birth to nearly 2 years
Sensorimotor
•Object permanence
•Stranger anxiety
Experiencing the world through
senses and actions (looking,
touching, mouthing)
About 2 to 6 years
Preoperational
Representing things
with words and images
but lacking logical reasoning
About 7 to 11 years
Concrete operational
Thinking logically about concrete
events; grasping concrete analogies
and performing arithmetical operations
About 12 through
adulthood
Formal operational
Abstract reasoning
•Pretend play
•Egocentrism
•Language development
•Conservation
•Mathematical
transformations
•Abstract logic
•Potential for
moral reasoning
 Drive-Reduction Theory
 the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused
tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to
satisfy the need
 Social Facilitation
 improved performance of tasks in the presence of
others
 occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with
tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered
 Overjustification Effect
 the effect of promising a reward for
doing what one already likes to do
 the person may now see the reward,
rather than intrinsic interest, as the
motivation for performing the task
Personality disorders
• Dependent Personality disorder– lack self
confidence, cannot express difference of opinion
with others, lets others make decisions for them.
They have no true identity
• Narcissistic personality disorder– inflated
sense of their own importance and a deep need
for admiration. They believe that they’re
superior to others and have little regard for
other’s feelings. But behind this mask of ultraconfidence lies a fragile self-esteem, vulnerable
to the slightest criticism.
Brain Scans
 CT (computed tomography) Scan
 a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined
by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the
body; also called CAT scan
 PET (positron emission tomography) Scan
 a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form
of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
 a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce
computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of
soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain
 Electroencephalogram (EEG) -- an amplified recording of the waves of
electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface
 these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
Measures of Variance
 Provide an index of how spread out
scores of a distribution are.
 Range= subtract the lowest score from
the highest score.
 Standard Deviation is a measure of
distance. The larger the standard
deviation, the more spread out the
scores are.
http://www.childrensmercy.org/stats/definitions/stdev.htm
Paul Ekman
• Facial expressions of emotion are not culturally
determined, but universal across human cultures
and thus biological in origin
• He developed the Facial Action Coding System
(FACS) to taxonomize every human facial
expression
• Display rules-- Socialization establishes when it
is appropriate to display a given facial expression
in a given society and when it is not, thus causing
individuals to actively modulate the display of
emotions and other states. Ekman and Friesen
coined the term display rules to describe such
socially engendered forces that alter facial
expression.
Hypothetical thinking-- involves the
imagination of possibilities and the
exploration of their consequences by a
process of mental simulation. In
development, it is acquired last.
Personality Inventory
 a questionnaire (often with true-false or
agree-disagree items) on which people
respond to items designed to gauge a wide
range of feelings and behaviors
 used to assess selected personality traits
 Hallucinations
 sensory experiences without sensory
stimulation
EX 2: Case Studies or Case Histories
• In depth studies of one or a few people
• Often used to investigate rare or unusual conditions
• EX: Studying multiple births (triplets or
quadruplets, only so many)
• Data is gathered using observation methods,
interviews, and psychological testing
• This is the primary type of research that Freud used
• Disadvantage = results may not generalize beyond
the people being studied or to other cultures
2. Correlational research
Determines the relationship or correlation between two characteristics, events, or behaviors
Important: Does not prove that one thing causes another, just proves there is a relationship
Almost any two things or behaviors can be tested and proven related in some way
Correlational Study may determine 3 things:
• 1. There is no relationship (very rare)
• 2. Positive relationship
• As one behavior increases, the other increases
*None of these things causes the other, but they are related
• 3. Negative relationship
• As one behavior increases, the other decreases
*Again just because you are in sports doesn’t mean you don’t do drugs, but there is a
relationship
Correlation Coefficient
• Measures relationships, ranges from –1 to 1
•
-1 is a strong negative correlation
•
+1 indicates a strong positive correlation
•
EX: -.86 (strong negative relationship)
•
EX: .01 (very little relationship)
•
EX: .94 (very strong positive relationship)
3. Experimental research methods
Goals is to find facts and causes of things,
Variables (properties or characteristics of some event, object or person that can take on different
values or amounts
• Experiments manipulate variables
–
•
•
•
•
Qualitative or Quantitative?
1. Qualitative variables (quality can be measured, but not with numbers)
2. Quantitative variables (can measure quantity with numbers or stats)
A. Discrete or Continuous?
Discrete variables (have possible scores of discrete points on a scale)
B.Continuous variables (have a continuous scale)
C. Independent Variable
Variable that is manipulated by an experimenter
Produces change in the experiment
Variable that you use to make predictions
D. Dependent Variable
Variable that you are trying to predict
Factor observed and measured for a change,
DV depends on changes in the independent variable
Usually a test or measurement taken at the end of the experiment
In most experiments, there are 2 Groups:
1. Experimental group (exposed to the IV, group that played the violent game)
2. Control group (not exposed to the IV, group that played the non violent game, used as a
comparison)
• Cross sectional research– studying groups
of people at various age levels; advantage–
takes less time.
• Longitudinal research– studying a group of
people intermittently at varying times
(every 5 years).
Pain
 Gate-Control Theory
 theory that the spinal cord contains a
neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals
or allows them to pass on to the brain
 “gate” opened by the activity of pain signals
traveling up small nerve fibers
 “gate” closed by activity in larger fibers or
by information coming from the brain
Social Relations
Mirror image perceptions– how we see
“them” they see “us”
Self-serving bias– a readiness to perceive
oneself favorably. Accept credit for good
deeds and shuck blame for bad deeds.
 General Intelligence (g)
 factor that Spearman and others believed underlies
specific mental abilities
 measured by every task on an intelligence test
 Factor Analysis
 statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related
items (called factors) on a test
 used to identify different dimensions of performance
that underlie one’s total score
Freud’s Elements of the
Personality
ID
• Unconscious energy
• Basic drives
• Sexual and aggressive instincts
• Immediate gratification
• Pleasure Principle
• Instinctual/biological
• Libidinal Energy
Elements of the Personality
EGO
• Partially conscious
• Cope with real world
• Gratifies ID in realistic ways
• Reality Principle
• Logical/Rational
• Struggles to reconcile ID &
Superego
Elements of the Personality
SUPEREGO
• Partially conscious
• Ideal behavior
• Moral Principle
• Conscience
Personality Structure
Ego
Conscious mind
Unconscious
mind
Superego
Id
 Freud’s idea
of the
mind’s
structure
Assessing the
Unconscious
 Rorschach Inkblot Test
 the most widely used projective test
 a set of 10 inkblots designed by
Hermann Rorschach
 seeks to identify people’s inner feelings
by analyzing their interpretations of the
blots
Social Influence
 Group Polarization
 enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes
through discussion within the group
 Can increase prejudice, internet new medium
 Good for self-help group situations
 Groupthink
 mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for
harmony in a decision-making group overrides
realistic appraisal of alternatives
 Fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification,
& group polarization.
• Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation coming
from within, not from external rewards;
based on personal enjoyment of a task
• Extrinsic Motivation: Based on obvious
external rewards, obligations, or similar
factors
Industrial and Organizational Psychologists – Industrial
psychologists focus on people and work. Organizational
psychologists study the behavior of people in
organizations, such as business firms. Industrial
psychology and organizational psychology are closely
related. Psychologists in these fields are often trained in
both areas.
• Industrial and organizational psychologists are employed
by business firms to improve working conditions and
increase worker output. They may assist in hiring,
training, and promoting employees. They may also devise
psychological tests for job applicants and conduct research
into the factors that contribute to job satisfaction. In
addition, some industrial and organizational psychologists
have counseling skills and help employees who have
problems on the job.
• Split Brain --a condition in which the
two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by
cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those
of the corpus callosum) between them
– Image projected to the left visual field of a
split-brained patient will be processed in the
right visual cortex.
 Operant Conditioning
 type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by
reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
 Shaping
 operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers
guide behavior toward closer approximations of a
desired goal
 Law of Effect
 Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable
consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by
unfavorable consequences become less likely
Memorizing lists
Primacy effect- Remembering the first four or
five items in a list because you have more time
to rehearse them
Recency effect- Recalling the last four or five
items because they were still in short-term
memory
When memorizing a list of words you are most
likely to forget the words in the middle of the
list.
 Cones
 near center of retina
 fine detail and color vision
 daylight or well-lit conditions
Opponent-Process Theory- opposing
retinal processes enable color vision
“ON”
red
green
blue
yellow
black
white
“OFF”
green
red
yellow
blue
white
black
 Binocular cue
 retinal disparity
 images from the two eyes differ
 closer the object, the larger the disparity
 Gestalt--an organized whole
 tendency to integrate pieces of information
into meaningful wholes
 Grouping Principles





proximity--group nearby figures together
similarity--group figures that are similar
continuity--perceive continuous patterns
closure--fill in gaps
connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are seen as
unit when connected
Social Relations
 Ingroup Bias
 tendency to favor one’s own group
 Scapegoat Theory
 theory that prejudice provides an outlet for
anger by providing someone to blame
 Just-World Phenomenon/ Hypothesis
 tendency of people to believe the world is just
 people get what they deserve and deserve
what they get
What Are Phonemes?
PHONEME - shortest segment of speech,
which, if changed, would change the
meaning of a spoken word.
/bit/
/bait/
/beet/
Only 60 phonemes necessary to account for
all worlds’ languages!
English requires 48 phonemes.
Hawaiian requires only 11!
What Are Morphemes?
Morpheme - the shortest unit of spoken or written
language that carries meaning
Some morphemes are phonemes
(e.g., “I” and “a”)
Most are combos of 2 or more phonemes
Some morphemes are words
(e.g., “bat”)
Attention:
Process that transfers information from
sensory memory to short-term memory
Selective Attention
focus of conscious awareness on
particular stimulus (ex: cocktail party
effect– ability to hear only one voice
among many)
Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder
Postconventional
level
Morality of abstract
principles: to affirm
agreed-upon rights and
personal ethical principles
Conventional
level
Morality of law and
social rules: to gain
approval or avoid
disapproval
Preconventional
level
Morality of self-interest:
to avoid punishment
or gain concrete rewards
 As moral
development
progresses, the
focus of concern
moves from the
self to the wider
social world.
Carol Gilligan’s Critique of
Kohlberg
 Gilligan argues that Kohlberg’s rule-oriented conception of morality
has an orientation toward justice, which she implies is due to
stereotypical male thinking, whereas girls and women are more
likely to approach moral dilemmas with a “care” orientation
(Matthews, 1994).
 Gilligan argues that moral reasoning of males is primarily
based on rational abstract principles, whereas the moral
reasoning of females is based on relationships and the
social context.
 She bases her criticism on two things. First, that Kohlberg only
studied privileged white boys and men causing, in her opinion, a
biased opinion against women. Second, in his stage theory of moral
development, the male view of individual rights and rules was
considered a higher stage than women’s point of view of
development in terms of its caring effect on human relationships.
Memory
 Short-Term Memory
 activated memory that holds a few
items briefly
 limited in capacity
 look up a phone number, then quickly
dial before the information is forgotten
 Long-Term Memory
 the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
Milgram Experiment
 Milgram wanted to see if participants would
administer painful shocks to others merely
because an authority figure had instructed
them to do so. 60+% administered the
highest level of shock
 Researchers at Swarthmore College
hypothesized that Milgram’s subjects could
inflict pain because they served in military
or were working class. They used young,
liberal, highly educated subjects: 88%
administered the highest level of shock.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)



A rare condition in which a baby is born without the ability to properly
break down an amino acid (protein) called phenylalanine.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is inherited, which means it is passed down
through families. Both parents must pass on the defective gene in order
for a baby to have the condition. This is called an autosomal recessive
trait.
Phenylalanine plays a role in the body's production of melanin, the
pigment responsible for skin and hair color. Therefore, infants with the
condition often have lighter skin, hair, and eyes than brothers or sisters
without the disease.




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




Other symptoms may include:
Delayed mental and social skills
Head size significantly below normal
Hyperactivity
Jerking movements of the arms or legs
Mental retardation
Seizures
Skin rashes
Tremors
Unusual positioning of hands
Defense Mechanisms
 Repression
 the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxietyarousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from
consciousness– cannot retrieve the memories
 Projection
 defense mechanism by which people disguise their
own threatening impulses by attributing them to
others
 Rationalization
 defense mechanism that offers self-justifying
explanations in place of the real, more threatening,
unconscious reasons for one’s actions
Psychoactive Drugs
 Opiates
 opium and its derivatives
(morphine and heroin)
 opiates depress neural
activity, temporarily lessening
pain and anxiety
Physiology of hunger
p. 428-430
Body chemistry affects hunger:
Glucose- when low we feel hungry
insulin- hormone that diminishes glucose by
storing it as fat
Brain monitors blood chemistry
(hypothalamus)
Lateral hypothalamus– initiates hunger
Ventromedial hypothalamus– depresses
hunger
 Latent Learning
 learning that occurs, but is not apparent until
there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Rats explored maze for 10 days. Then they
were reinforced with food at the end of the
maze. They quickly demonstrated their prior
learning and did as well as rats who had
always been reinforced.
 Transduction
 conversion of one form of energy to
another
 in sensation, transforming of stimulus
energies into neural impulses
 In vision, transduction happens in the
retina.
Semantic vs. Episodic Memory
 Episodic
Chronological recollections of personal
experiences
 Like an autobiography

 Semantic
General knowledge, not tied to time when
learned
 Like an encyclopedia

Renee Baillargeon
Found 4 month old infants will look longer
at a ball if it appears to roll through a
solid barrier, demonstrating that babies
seem to grasp basic physical laws
intuitively.
This challenged Piaget’s theory of object
permanence in Sensorimotor Stage
(cognitive development)
Social Psychology
• Bystander effect– the tendency of a
person to be less likely to give aid if other
people are present.
• Social loafing– tendency for people to
work less hard when sharing the workload
with others than when they are working
alone.
Classical
Conditioning
Biological processes
• Certain species are biologically
predisposed to learn a particular
association if it enhances their
survival.
Generalization
 tendency for stimuli similar to CS to
elicit similar responses
 EX: dog trained to salivate to bell can
be trained to salivate to light instead
Rational Emotive Therapy
(cont)
The main purpose of REBT is to help clients to identify and replace
absolutist philosophies, full of ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’, with more flexible
ones; part of this includes learning to accept that all human beings
(including themselves) are fallible and learning to increase their
tolerance for frustration while aiming to achieve their goals.
Three primary insights:



While external events are of undoubted influence, psychological disturbance
is largely a matter of personal choice in the sense that individuals consciously
or unconsciously select both rational beliefs and irrational beliefs at (B) when
negative events occur at (A)
Past history and present life conditions strongly affect the person, but they do
not, in and of themselves, disturb the person; rather, it is the individual’s
responses which disturb them, and it is again a matter of individual choice
whether to maintain the philosophies at (B) which cause disturbance.
Modifying the philosophies at (B) requires persistence and hard work, but it
can be done.
Schizophrenia
• Defined as a class of disorders marked by
delusions, hallucinations, disorganized
speech, and deterioration of adaptive
behavior
• It primarily involves disturbances in
perception and thought, with corresponding
loss of the ability to function.
• Cognitive processes are severely
disrupted.
• Positive symptoms: Hallucinations,
disorganized and delusional talk,
inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage.
• Negative symptoms: toneless voices,
expressionless faces, mute
http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?p
id=788
Sensation- Thresholds
 Absolute Threshold
 minimum stimulation needed to detect a
particular stimulus 50% of the time
 Difference Threshold
 minimum difference between two stimuli
required for detection 50% of the time
 just noticeable difference (JND)
Sleep Disorders
 Insomnia
 persistent problems in falling or staying
asleep
 Narcolepsy
 uncontrollable sleep attacks
 Sleep Apnea
 temporary cessation of breathing
 momentary reawakenings
 Sample- the small group out of the total
population you wish to study.
Neuroleptics-- Antipsychotic medications
used for Schizophrenia; linked to the
side effect of tardive dyskensia.
Desirable test-retest
correlation
Neural Communication
Neurotransmitter
molecule
Receptor site on
receiving neuron
Receiving cell
membrane
Agonist mimics
neurotransmitter
Antagonist
blocks
neurotransmitter
Social Thinking
 Cognitive Dissonance Theory
 we act to reduce the discomfort
(dissonance) we feel when two of our
thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent
 example- when we become aware that
our attitudes and our actions clash, we
can reduce the resulting dissonance by
changing our attitudes
Heuristics

Representativeness Heuristic



judging the likelihood of things in terms of how
well they seem to represent, or match, particular
prototypes
may lead one to ignore other relevant information
Availability Heuristic



estimating the likelihood of events based on their
availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind (perhaps
because of their vividness), we presume such
events are common
Example: airplane crash
Different dimensions or axes

Each axis reflects a different aspect of a patient’s
case:





Axis I- used to classify current symptoms
Axis II- used to describe developmental and longstanding personality disorders or maladaptive traits;
specific developmental disorders for children such as
mental retardation, autism, etc.
Axis III- used to describe physical disorders or general
medical conditions that are relevant to treatment
Axis IV- current stress level (based on the past year)
Axis V- adaptive functioning: 3 major areas– social
relations, occupational functioning, & use of leisure
time
EmotionLie Detectors
 Polygraph
 machine commonly used in attempts to
detect lies
 Not widely used in courtrooms because the
type of arousal measured is much the same
for several emotions including lying– so it is
not always reliable.
 measures several of the physiological
responses accompanying emotion
 perspiration
 cardiovascular
 breathing changes
Thinking
 Algorithm
 methodical, logical rule or procedure
that guarantees solving a particular
problem
 contrasts with the usually speedier–but
also more error-prone--use of heuristics
The Cerebral Cortex
 Aphasia
 impairment of language, usually caused by left
hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area
(impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area
(impairing understanding)
 Broca’s Area
 an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the
muscle movements involved in speech
 Wernicke’s Area
 an area of the left temporal lobe involved in
language comprehension and expression
Contemporary Research-The Trait Perspective
 Trait
 a characteristic pattern of behavior
 a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by
self-report inventories and peer reports
 Personality Inventory
 a questionnaire (often with true-false or
agree-disagree items) on which people
respond to items designed to gauge a wide
range of feelings and behaviors
 used to assess selected personality traits
The Trait Perspective
Moody
Anxious
Rigid
Sober
Pessimistic
Reserved
Unsociable
Quiet
UNSTABLE
 Hans and Sybil
Eysenck use two
primary personality
factors as axes for
EXTRAVERTED describing personality
sanguine
variation
Sociable
Touchy
Restless
Aggressive
Excitable
Changeable
Impulsive
Optimistic
Active
melancholic choleric
INTROVERTED
phlegmatic
Passive
Careful
Thoughtful
Peaceful
Controlled
Reliable
Even-tempered
Calm
Outgoing
Talkative
Responsive
Easygoing
Lively
Carefree
Leadership
STABLE
The Trait Perspective
 Empirically Derived Test
 a test developed by testing a pool of
items and then selecting those that
discriminate between groups
 such as the MMPI
The Trait Perspective
The “Big Five” Personality Factors
Trait Dimension
Description
Emotional Stability
Calm versus anxious
Secure versus insecure
Self-satisfied versus self-pitying
Extraversion
Sociable versus retiring
Fun-loving versus sober
Affectionate versus reserved
Openness
Imaginative versus practical
Preference for variety versus
preference for routine
Independent versus conforming
Agreeableness
Soft-hearted versus ruthless
Trusting versus suspicious
Helpful versus uncooperative
Organized versus disorganized
Careful versus careless
Disciplined versus impulsive
Conscientiousness
Social Thinking

Cognitive Dissonance Theory


we act to reduce the discomfort
(dissonance) we feel when two of our
thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent
example- when we become aware that
our attitudes and our actions clash, we
can reduce the resulting dissonance by
changing our attitudes
Social Relations
Mirror image perceptions– how we see
“them” they see “us”
Self-serving bias– a readiness to perceive
oneself favorably. Accept credit for good
deeds and shuck blame for bad deeds.
Personality Disorders
• Psychologists consider people with personality disorders
“abnormal” because they seem unable to establish meaningful
relationships with other people, to assume social
responsibilities, or to adapt to their social environment.
Erikson’s Stages of
Psychological
Development