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Prenatal “experience” and the phylogenesis and ontogenesis of music Richard Parncutt, University of Graz Music & Science, Baden bei Wien, Austria, 1-4 October 2006 Music, the body and biology • • • • • Movement and dance (Trevarthen) Identity (Janata) Melody and speech (Koelsch) Rhythm and tempo (several…) Emotion (several…) Why is music like this? Origins and definitions of music • A definition is necessary – to analytically explain origins • Every definition and theory of origins – assumes universals – is ethnocentric Music: A definition (a) an acoustic signal that (b) evokes recognizable patterns of sound, (c) implies physical movement, (d) is perceived as segmented and structured, (e) is meaningful, (f) is intentional wrt (b), (c), (d) or (e), and (g) is accepted by a cultural group Further musical universals • Exists in all known cultures • Has dedicated brain structures (Peretz) • Functions – social (communication, group, identity) – emotional (share/influence states) – religious (gods, spirits) Widespread musical structures Themes and forms call-answer (antecedent-consequent) development (repetition, variation) Melody pitch and interval distributions (M2, P8, P5 etc.) rise-fall phrases Rhythm pulse perception/production, entrainment tempo distributions Origins of music Some theories • Survival – mating (Darwin) – training (Roederer) – group survival • long-distance communication (Stumpf, 1911) • rhythmic work (Bücher, 1896; Hornbostel, 1912) • Extended vocalisation – from speech (Spencer, 1890) – "tumbling strains" (Sachs, 1962) – primate vocalisations (Wallin, 2000) • Imitation – Child’s drive to play – Movement, gesture, mimesis (Tolbert, 2001) – Environmental sounds (Cazden, 1951) Origins of music Theoretical problems • Evolutionary adaptation vs “parasite” • Strong emotionality; spirituality, identity • Biological basis of structures – rhythm and walking/heartbeat – melody and speech • Roles of men vs women • What actually happened and why? Origins of music a new scenario 1. Fetus a) environmental sounds and movements b) perception c) classical conditioning d) communication with mother 2. Infant a) transnatal memory b) protomusical sensitivity c) communication with mother / adults d) operant conditioning 3. Child and adult reflective consciousness and culture 1. Fetus a) Environmental sounds, movements Internal to mother’s body • • • • vocalizations and breathing heartbeat body movements and footfalls digestion All these sounds • • • are repetitive depend on mother’s (emotional) state are muffled (low-pass to about 2 kHz) External sounds • Only loud, mid-frequency sound 1. Fetus b) Perception • Functioning cochlea and vestibule – from 20-24 weeks – both sound and motion • Myelinization of auditory pathways – from 24-28 weeks – improved neural transmission 1. Fetus c) Classical conditioning • Pavlov’s dog • Parncutt’s fetus Both are examples of • perceptual learning (Gibson) • without reflective awareness Classical conditioning Pavlov‘s dog neutral stimulus unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response footsteps food saliva many repetitions conditioned stimulus footsteps conditioned response saliva Classical conditioning of fetus (Spelt 1948; Hepper 1996) neutral stimulus unconditioned stimulus vibration or tone loud noise unconditioned response fetal movement 15-20 repetitions conditioned stimulus conditioned response vibration or tone fetal movement Classical conditioning Parncutt‘s fetus neutral stimulus unconditioned stimulus auditory, tactile, kinesthetic biochemical unconditioned response many repetitions conditioned stimulus conditioned response emotional auditory, tactile, kinesthetic emotional Biochemical correlates of emotion Examples • fear – corticosteroids, e.g. glucocorticoids, e.g. cortisol • anger – high cortisol, adrenaline – low dopamine, serotonin • bonding – oxytocin Placental filtering • passes – nutrients and oxygen toward fetus – wastes and carbon dioxide away – fetal steroids since highly lipophilic • partly filters out – bacteria, viruses, toxins, drugs – chemicals like alcohol, nicotine, cocaine Brain-blood barrier • Protects brain from infection • Passes lipid-soluble molecules – O2, CO2, ethanol, steroid hormones • Steroid hormones include – glucocorticoids incl. cortisol – mineralocorticoids incl. aldosterone – sex steroids • androgens • estrogens • progestagens 1. Fetus d) “Communication” with mother • Emotion, physical state • Physiological and behavioural • Survival value: bonding after birth 2. Infant a) Transnatal “memory” Babies “recognize” “melodies” heard repeatedly before birth (e.g. Hepper) This is not “memory” but • ontogenetic adaptation to prenatal environment • phylogenetic exaptation (Buss) – parasitic on prenatal audition/bonding Duration of “memory”: • Hepper: a few weeks • Lamont: one year? 2. Infant b) Protomusical sensitivity Infants are: 1. 2. 3. sensitive to musical structure sensitive to musical emotion more interested in singing than speech Trehub & Nakata (2001) Prenatal perceptual learning model: 1. 2. 3. heart/feet rhythm, voice melody sound patterns depend on emotion muffling emphasizes pitch contour 2. Infant c) Communication with adults Infant-adult vocal play (motherese) • • • • • is universal promotes speech acquisition involves meaningful gestures (Papousek) may underlie (musical) ritual (Dissanayake) projects prenatal learning into childhood 2. Infant d) Operant conditioning • Skinner’s rat • Parncutt’s baby Both are examples of • perceptual learning (Gibson) • without reflective awareness Operant conditioning Skinner: positive reinforcement Why does the rat push the lever? quasi-random behavior accidentally push lever reward receive sugar increase in frequency of behavior Operant conditioning: Motherese Why do mother and baby exchange physical/vocal gestures? quasi-random accidentally create prenatally behavior “familiar” sound patterns reward emotion increase in frequency of behavior 3. Child and adult Reflective consciousness „Cultural explosion“ (Mithen) 100-50 kya • “conscious” use of symbols – painting, body decoration • social organisation – migration, ritual (e.g. burial) Music as deliberate creation of emotional sound patterns The origins of music 3 stages A = adaptation, E = exaptation (parasite) 1. Fetus: Emotionality of pitch-time patterns A: Prenatal bonding and preparation for language E: Classical conditioning (sound-movement-emotion) 2. Infant: Motherese as protomusic A: Postnatal bonding and preparation for language E: Operant conditioning (sound-movement-emotion) 3. Children and adults: Music as we know it A: Reflective language and consciousness E: Music as deliberate emotional manipulation Thesis • Music is exaptive – a parasite on pre- and postnatal • bonding • preparation for language • Music may also be adaptive – trains individual cognitive and motor abilities – promotes social coherence If music has prenatal origins… Implications • Music and the body – The body is music’s origin • Music and biology – Biology underlies musical structures • Music, identity, spirituality – Music is a cultural elaboration of cognitive representation of mother as perceived by fetus