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Name: ___________________________ Hour: ______ Chapter 11 Notes - Introduction to Genetics What is Inheritance? •Every living thing has a set of characteristics inherited from its parent or parents. •Genetics ____________________________________________. 11-1 The Work of Gregor Mendel •He was an Austrian monk •He worked with different ________________________ (pure bred) ____________________ . •Pea plants were a good choice because: •They were ___________________________ •Seed in _____________________ •________________________________________________________ •Mendel worked with 7 different traits: •___________________________________ •___________________________________ •___________________________________ •___________________________________ •___________________________________ 1 Genes and Dominance •What is a trait? •___________________________________ •Example: •Tall vs.. Short – _______________ •Round vs. Wrinkled – _______________________ •Mendel called the original plants the ______(parent) generation •Offspring =______ generation •If you cross two parents with different traits, the offspring are called _______________. Mendel’s F1 Cross This is what Mendel saw. The offspring had the characteristics of only one of its parents Mendel concluded: 1. Inheritance is determined by ____________ that are passed from one generation to the next 2. Chemical factors that determine traits are called ___________ 3. Different forms of the same gene are called ____________ Example: Gene for ___________ Alleles: _______________________ 4. _______________________________________________ : Some alleles are dominant and some alleles are recessive. •_________________________________ are always expressed •_________________________________ are can only be expressed when the dominant allele is not present •Mendel wondered if the recessive alleles had dissapeared or were they still present in the F 1 plants •He decided to allow all seven kinds of F1 hybrids to produce F2 offspring. 2 Segregation •Mendel looked at the results of his F1 and F2 crosses: P1 F1 tall plants x short plants _______________________ ( ____________________________________________________________ ) P2 F2 tall plants x tall plants ________________________________________ This is What Mendel Saw •Because the trait, _________, ___________________, Mendel reasoned that the ____________ for tallness and shortness had ______________________ from each other when gametes (__________________) form. T = Tall t = short F1 : the F1 plant produces 2 kinds of sex cells 3 11-2 Probability and Punnett Squares •The chances that a particular event will happen is called ______________________. •The principles of probability can be used to ________________ the outcomes of __________________________________. Punnett Squares •_________________________ can be used to determine the genetic _____________________ that might result from a ________________________. •The _______________ in a Punnett Square represent ______________: •Capital Letters = ________________________________ (____) •Lowercase Letters = ________________________________ (____) Punnett Square Terms •___________________________ = True Breeding (__________) •___________________________ = Hybrid (___________) •___________________________ = Physical Characteristics •___________________________ = Genetic Makeup (__________________________) (___________) Predicting Averages •Probabilities can _____________ the average outcome of ______________________________. •The larger the number of offspring resulting from a cross, the closer the results will be to the expected values. Ratios: P - _________________ G – ____________ Offspring 4 11-3 Independent Assortment •What happens if there is ________________________________? •Does inheriting a certain gene for seed color affect the inheritance of another trait like plant height? 2 Factor Crosses •Mendel performed experiment to follow ______________________________ as they passed from one generation to the next. •These experiments are known as ___________________ (__________________) crosses. •Mendel crossed plants that were true-breeding for two different traits. •Round, yellow peas •Genotype ______________ •Wrinkled green peas •Genotype ______________ Which traits are dominant and which traits are recessive? RRYY x rryy ry ry ry ry RY RY RY RY Why are there so many boxes? •Each parent can produce ______________________ kinds of sex cells (________________) •Each gamete has an _________________________ of combining with each of the other parents 4 types of gametes. 5 F2: Dihybrid Cross •Each of the offspring in the example are hybrids for _____________________ - ________________ •Mendel crossed these offspring to produce another generation of plants (F2) •If the genotype of each parent is RrYy, What kinds of gametes will each parent produce? Gametes •Parent 1: RrYy •_____ _____ _____ _____ •Parent 2: RrYy •______ ______ _____ _____ •The results of the F2 cross showed that the alleles for the two different traits segregated ________________________ into the gametes. •The offspring from this cross showed a _______________________ of the different ________________________. Summary of Mendel’s Principles •Inherited traits are determined by __________. Genes are passed from parents to offspring •Some forms of the gene may be _________________ and others may be _________________ •The genes ___________________ during meiosis so only one copy of a gene goes into the gamete •Alleles for different genes usually segregate _______________________ of one another. Exceptions to Mendel’s Principles •Some alleles are _______________________________________________________, and many traits are controlled by ______________________________ or _____________________________. 6 Incomplete Dominance •One allele is ______________________________ dominant over another. •The heterozygous phenotype is somewhere _______________________ the two homozygous phenotypes. Example: •R = red flowers •r = white flowers •Rr = pink flowers. • Codominance •___________ alleles ___________________ to the phenotype of the organism •Example: Horses, allele for red hair is codominant with allele for white hair. Animals with both alleles ___________________ red and white hairs. The color is called roan. Multiple Alleles •A particular trait has ____________________________________ alleles. •You only inherit two of those alleles at a time. •Examples: coat color in rabbits, hair color in humans, and _________________________________. Human Blood Types ; 7 Polygenic Traits •Traits produced by the interaction of _______________________. •Examples: _______________________________, height, cystic fibrosis Applying Mendel’s Principles •Albinism in humans is caused by a __________________ trait. •If two people with normal skin color have a child with albinism, what are the odds that a second child will also have albinism? A = normal, a = albino •Chances for a normal child? •___________ •Changes for an albino child? •___________ 11-4 Meiosis Introduction •Multicellular organisms use ____________ to _____________________ that lost due to _______________ or damage or to ___________. •These cells (_____________________) are identical to the parent cells because all of the DNA is first copied and then two copies of the DNA separate when the daughter cells form. •______________________________________________________________________________ . Meiosis is Different •Multicellular organisms _____________________________. •In order to keep the number of chromosomes the same from generation to generation, the _________________ have to reduce the number of chromosomes to one half of the number that you find in a somatic cell (body cell) •_______________________________________________________________________________. 8 Meiosis I •The chromosomes have replicated during S phase of the cell cycle. •During _______________, the chromosomes become visible and the chromosomes pair off--that is chromosomes that carry the same information called ________________, and form structures called ____________. •Something important happens during this process--the homologous chromosomes can twist around each other and some times they break off. When they re-attach, they may attach to the other chromosome. •This event is called ________________________ and is an important process in genetics. •After prophase I, the tetrads of chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell for ________________ •In _________________________, the pairs of chromosomes separate from each other. _________________________________________________________of each type of chromosome. •In __________________, two daughter cells form. Each of these cells have __________________ _______________ of chromosomes that we wstarted with. Meiosis II •In this second cell division, the two daughter cells from meiosis I undergo one more cell division •The steps in this cells division are very much the same as mitosis except the DNA is _______ copied again • ___________________: • ___________________: • ___________________: • ___________________: chromosomes become visible chromosomes line up at the equator centromeres split, and the copies of the DNA are pulled apart 4 daughter cells form. 9 Products of Meiosis • _______________________ • Cells are ___________________________________________ to the parent cell • _________________________ may have ________________________________ from the maternal and paternal chromosomes. ________________________________________________________________________________ Additional Notes: 10