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General Psychology Kyle White Email: [email protected] Cell: 918-766-5512 Office: 918-335-6289 Website for PPT: www.kdub1.com PSYCH4 | CH1 2 STUDENT EVALUATION The performance of adult learners in this course is assessed through the following components: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Individual Research Paper and Presentation In-class Group Presentations Written Presentation Summary Papers Weekly (i.e., weeks 2-5) Quizzes – Open Book Class Participation and Attendance See Syllabus PSYCH4 | CH1 3 Class Agenda Introductions and Assignments Discussion Learning Team Assignments Devotion Learning Team Discussions Discussion of Psychology and Christianity Break Learning Team Discussions Discussion of Neurophysiology and Brain Learning Team Discussions Discussion of Sensation and Perception Break Learning Team Presentation to Class Discussion of Consciousness and Sleep PSYCH4 | CH1 4 Scripture James 1:19 19 My dear brothers and sisters, take note of this: Everyone should be quick to listen, slow to speak and slow to become angry, PSYCH4 | CH1 5 Introduction to Psychology Chapter Thirteen PSYCH4 | CH13 6 LEARNING OUTCOMES (PSYCH13) Prepare an overview of the insight related therapies. Using journal articles of your choice, discuss how your Christian faith intercepts with psychology’s behavioral and cognitive therapies. PSYCH4 | CH13 7 LEARNING OUTCOMES (PSYCH 13) Prepare an overview of the behavioral and cognitive therapies. Using journal articles of your choice, discuss how your Christian faith intercepts with psychology’s behavioral and cognitive therapies. PSYCH4 | CH13 8 History of Mental Health Treatment When people have displayed unusual behaviors rooted in the mind, these people have often been locked away or “treated” using old ideas of mental illness. Old ways of getting rid of “the evil spirits” include: beating them out of people. bleeding them out. letting the spirits out through holes drilled in the skull. PSYCH4 | CH13 9 Reforms in Treatment This chair was designed to be an improvement in medical treatment. It was meant to have a calming effect on people with mania. Other Reforms in Treatment Seeing the “insane” as ill instead of “possessed” Treating them with tenderness, not harshness Housing them in hospitals rather than locking them up in asylums Developing psychotherapeutic treatments, medications, and community supports to allow life outside hospitals PSYCH4 | CH13 10 Current Forms of Therapy Psychotherapy: an interactive experience with a trained professional, working on understanding and changing behavior, thinking, relationships, and emotions Biomedical therapy: the use of medications and other procedures acting directly on the body to reduce the symptoms of mental disorders Combining Therapies There are various forms of psychotherapy. An eclectic approach uses techniques from various forms of therapy to fit the client’s problems, strengths, and preferences. Medications and psychotherapy can be used together, and may help the each other achieve better reduction in symptoms. Noteworthy Schools of Psychotherapy Psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy Sigmund Freud’s legacy carried on today Humanistic, client-centered therapy Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow Behavior therapy, using conditioning B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov applied to people Cognitive therapy, changing thoughts Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis, reducing errors and distress PSYCH4 | CH13 12 Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) found that the unusual symptoms of patients sometimes improved when repressed inner conflicts and feelings were brought into conscious awareness. Psychoanalysis refers to a set of techniques for releasing the tension of repression and resolving unconscious inner conflicts. Techniques: Free association: the patient speaks freely about memories, dreams, feelings Interpretation: the therapist suggests unconscious meanings and underlying wishes to help the client gain insight and release tension PSYCH4 | CH13 13 Interpretation in Psychoanalysis The therapist may see unconscious meaning in resistance, dreams, and transference. Resistance: the therapist notices times when the patient seems blocked in speaking about certain subjects Dreams: there may be themes or “latent content” behind the plot of a patient’s dream Transference: the patient may have reactions toward the therapist that are actually based on feelings toward someone from the past Psychodynamic Therapy Less intensive version of psychoanalysis Fewer sessions per week and fewer years Less theory about sex, id, and superego The focus is on improved self-awareness and insight into unconscious thoughts and feelings which may be rooted in past relationships. In addition to insight, therapists suggest changes in patterns of thinking and relating to others. Interpersonal Therapy A further extension of psychoanalysis The goal is less focused on insight, and more on relational behavior change and symptom relief. The focus is less on the past, and more on current feelings and relationships including the interaction with the therapist. PSYCH4 | CH13 15 Humanistic Therapies Humanistic psychology (Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers) emphasizes the human potential for growth, self-actualization, and personal fulfillment. Humanistic therapy attempts to support personal growth by helping people gain self-awareness and self-acceptance. “Client-centered therapy” is Carl Rogers’s name for his style of humanistic therapy. Humanistic vs. Psychoanalytic Therapy Goal Humanistic psychotherapy Promote growth Psychoanalytic psychotherapy Cure mental illness How to improve Take responsibility for feelings and actions Bring unconscious conflicts into conscious awareness Role of therapist Provide an environment Provide interpretations (e.g. in which growth can of dreams, resistance and occur transference) Content of Conscious feelings, therapy actual self and ideal self Unconscious conflicts Time focus The present and future The past PSYCH4 | CH13 17 Style of the ClientCentered Therapist Being non-directive Let insight and goals come from the client, rather than dictating interpretations. Being genuine Be yourself and be truthful; don’t put on a therapist façade. Being accepting and showing unconditional positive regard Help the client learn to accept themselves despite any weaknesses. Being empathetic Demonstrate careful attention to the clients’ feelings, partly by reflecting what you hear the client saying. Showing Empathy Through Active Listening Client-centered therapists show that they are tuning in to clients’ feelings and meanings. 1.Summarize, paraphrase “So your father wasn’t around much?” 2.Invite clarification and elaboration “When you say ‘anxiety,’ what does that feel like to you? What is going on in your body and thoughts?” 3.Reflect Feelings “It seems like you are disappointed; am I right?” Behavior Therapy Sometimes, insight is not helpful to recover from some mental health problems. The client might know the right changes to make, but finds that it’s hard to change actual behavior. Behavior therapy uses the principles of learning, especially classical and operant conditioning, to help reduce unwanted responses. These might include behaviors such as addictions, or emotions such as panic. PSYCH4 | CH13 19 Classical Conditioning Techniques Counterconditioning refers to linking new, positive responses to previously aversive stimuli. If you have been conditioned to fear stores because you have had panic attacks there, you could be led into a store and then helped with relaxation exercises. The goal is to associate stores with relaxation, a state incompatible with fear. PSYCH4 | CH13 20 Exposure Therapy A conditioned fear can worsen when avoidance of the feared situation gets reinforced by a quick reduction in anxiety. Guided exposure to the feared situation can reverse this reinforcement by waiting for anxiety to subside during the exposure. The person can habituate to (get used to) the anxiety itself, and then the feared situation. What mistake is Professor Gallagher making here? Hint: systematic desensitization might have been more effective, though less dramatic PSYCH4 | CH13 21 Versions of Exposure Therapy Sometimes, exposure to the feared situation is too anxietyprovoking or impractical. In those cases, you can use: systematic desensitization. Beginning with a tiny reminder of the feared situation, keep increasing the exposure intensity as the person learns to tolerate the previous level. virtual reality therapy. This involves exposure to simulations, such as flying (below) or snakes. Aversive Conditioning When a person has been conditioned to have a positive association with a drug... Aversive conditioning can associate the drug with a negative response. PSYCH4 | CH13 23 Operant Conditioning Therapy Operant conditioning refers to the shaping of chosen behavior in response to the consequences of the behavior. Applications of Operant Conditioning Applied behavioral analysis/application is used with nonverbal children with autism. It rewards behaviors such as sitting with someone Behavior modification or making eye contact, and refers to shaping a client’s sometimes punishes selfchosen behavior to look harming behaviors. more like a desired behavior, by making sure A token economy uses coins, that desired behaviors are stars, or other indirect rewarded and problematic rewards as “tokens” that can behaviors are unrewarded be collected and traded later or punished. for real rewards. PSYCH4 | CH13 24 Critiques of Behavior Therapy Does it work? And when it does, do the changes stick, without insights and other changes to hold the new behavior in place? It does often work, but extinguished behaviors and reactions do spontaneously reappear. To ensure maintenance of changes, a transition is needed from artificial rewards to awareness of natural, environmental consequences. Is it ethical? Since conditioning operates below conscious awareness, couldn’t people’s choices and reactions be manipulated without their consent? To minimize ethical problems: acquire consent, at least of guardians. develop goals for treatment that are more humane than the alternative. For example, shaping autistic behavior is seemingly better than institutionalization. PSYCH4 | CH13 25 Cognitive Therapies: Theory Being depressed and/or anxious involves negative thoughts and interpretations. In the cognitive perspective, the cause of depression are not bad events, but our thoughts about those events. PSYCH4 | CH13 26 Cognitive Therapies: Practice Cognitive therapy helps people alter the negative thinking that worsens depression and anxiety. Therapists might suggest other thoughts that the clients could have about their lives, or at least point out when clients jump to conclusions that make them feel worse. Schools of Cognitive Therapy Albert Ellis’s rational-emotive behavior therapy – challenging irrational beliefs and assumptions Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy for depression – correcting cognitive distortions Donald Meichenbaum’s stress inoculation training – practicing healthier thinking before facing a stressor, disappointment, or frustration PSYCH4 | CH13 27 Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Albert Ellis showed how depression is worsened by irrational beliefs. These include depressing assumptions about the world such as “everyone should like me” or “I should never do anything wrong.” Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy [REBT] helps people: 1) notice that they are operating on selfdefeating assumptions, and 2) reward themselves for replacing these assumptions with realistic beliefs. For example, a more realistic belief might be, “some people won’t like me, many will have no opinion; it doesn’t matter.” Aaron Beck’s Therapy for Depression Aaron Beck helped people see how their depression was worsened by errors in thinking such as catastrophizing, (interpreting current events as signs of the worst possible outcome). For example: “Now that I’ve made a mistake in my lecture, I’ve failed as a professor. Students can’t take me seriously, and they can’t learn from me.” Beck’s style of therapy helps clients notice and challenge these errors in thinking. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Cognitive behavioral therapy [CBT] works to change both cognitions and behaviors that are part of a mental health disorder. Using cognitive behavioral therapy, people with OCD are led to resist the urge to act on their compulsions, as well as to learn to manage obsessional thinking. PSYCH4 | CH13 30 Family Therapy Having a session with the whole family, at home or in the office, allows the therapist to work on the family system, that is, the family’s patterns of alliances, authority, and communication. A related modality is couples/marital therapy. Group Therapy Group therapy assembles about six to nine people with related needs into a group, facilitated by a therapist, to work on therapeutic goals together. The benefits include: less cost per person. more interaction, feedback, and support. clients realize others share their problems and they are not alone. Self-Help Groups Self-help groups are led by group members instead of a therapist. They can be much larger than group therapy, with less interaction. The focus is more on support rather than on working on goals during the group session. Is Psychotherapy Effective? There are different measures of the value and effectiveness of psychotherapy: whether the client is satisfied whether the client senses improvement whether the therapist sees improvement whether there has been an observable, measured change in initial symptoms What Causes Improvement? Even if clients do improve, is the improvement really caused by therapy? It could be: regression to the mean, drifting from initial crisis back to an average state. the client’s motivation to appear better in order to please the therapist or to justify the cost of therapy. Studying Treatment Outcomes To track the effectiveness of an intervention, use a control group not receiving the intervention, or even a placebo group. To measure effectiveness, use objective, observable measures of symptoms rather than relying on client or therapist perceptions. PSYCH4 | CH13 32 Understanding Outcome Data If we find that even people in a control group (e.g. on a waiting list) showed improvement, is therapy a waste of time? Number of persons People are more likely to improve with treatment. About 80 percent of untreated people have poorer outcomes than the average treated person. PSYCH4 | CH13 33 Results of Outcome Research Some forms of psychotherapy have been found to be effective for certain problems: Depression Cognitive-behavioral Anxiety Psychodynamic therapy Phobias Exposure therapy Bedwetting Behavior conditioning Evaluating “Alternative” Therapies When new cures emerge, they are often promoted with testimonials. Problem: we don’t know if those “cures” were really caused by the intervention. In addition, we don’t know how many people received no benefit from the intervention. Solution: controlled studies with random assignment to nonintervention conditions. Challenge: making sure the interventions are performed by people trained in that area. PSYCH4 | CH13 35 Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) In EMDR therapy, the therapist attempts to unlock and reprocess previous frozen traumatic memories. The therapist waves a finger or light in front of the eyes of the client, in order to integrate past and present, and left and right hemispheres. Some studies show EMDR is effective and some do not. Studies which did not show effectiveness were critiqued by the founder as being done without adequate training in EMDR. Is this a valid critique of the research? Research suggests that the effectiveness of EMDR, even when it does work, may not depend on the eye movement technique. PSYCH4 | CH13 36 Light Exposure Therapy Research supports the idea that daily exposure to bright light, especially with a blue tint, is effective in treating the depressive symptoms of seasonal affective disorder [SAD]. PSYCH4 | CH13 37 What do effective psychotherapy styles seem to have in common? Hope: therapists assume the client has resources that can be used for recovery, and that improvement is possible A new perspective: new interpretations and narratives (from “victim” to “survivor”) can improve mood and motivate change The relationship: empathy, trust, and caring provide an environment for healthy growth PSYCH4 | CH13 38 Client-Therapist Differences Therapists differ from clients (and from each other) in beliefs, values, cultural background, conversational style, and personality. Ways to serve diverse clients Therapists should be receptive, respectful, curious, and seek understanding rather than assuming it. The therapist and client do NOT have to have similar backgrounds for effective therapy and a good therapeutic relationship. It is more important to have similar ideas about the function and style of therapy. PSYCH4 | CH13 39 Selecting a Psychotherapist People with a variety of different graduate degrees are able to provide psychotherapy. Specific training and experience in the area of your difficulty is worth asking about. What is most important is whether you and the therapist are able to establish an alliance. Some of this is trial and error. If problems arise, you can try working it out, but switching therapists is okay. Therapists and their Training Psychotherapists ≠ psychologists Psychologists (PhD, PsyD) do therapy plus intelligence and personality testing. Psychiatrists (MD, DO) prescribe medicine and sometimes do psychotherapy. Social workers (MSW) as well as counselors, nurses, and other professionals may be trained and licensed to diagnose and treat mental health disorders. PSYCH4 | CH13 40 Biomedical Therapies Interventions in the brain and body can affect mood and behavior. Biomedical therapies refer to physically changing the brain’s functioning by altering its chemistry with medications, or affecting its circuitry with electrical or magnetic impulses or surgery. PSYCH4 | CH13 41 Drug (Medication) Therapies Psychopharmacology refers to the study of drug effects on behavior, mood, and the mind. PSYCH4 | CH13 42 Types of Medication Antipsychotic Reduces the symptoms of schizophrenia, What they especially “positive” do symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions How they work Antianxiety Antidepressant Temporarily reduces worried thinking and physical agitation; might permanently erase traumatic associations Improves mood and control over depressing and anxious thoughts nervous Blocking dopamine Slowing system activity in receptors the body and brain Obesity, diabetes, and movement problems (sluggishness, Side effects twitching, or eventually tardive dyskinesia--odd facial/tongue and body movements) Slowed thinking, reduced learning, dependence, and withdrawal Increasing levels of serotonin (sometimes norepinephrine) at synapses by inhibiting reuptake; possible neurogenesis Dry mouth, constipation, and reduced sexual desire and/or response Inhibiting Reuptake Many medications increase synaptic neurotransmitter levels; they stop the sending neuron from taking back its chemical messages. PSYCH4 | CH13 44 Types of Medication Mood Stabilizers Reduce the “highs” of mania as What they well as reduce the do depressive “lows” How they work ADHD “Stimulants” Help control impulses, and reduce distractibility and the need for stimulation including fidgeting Blocking Under reuptake of investigation dopamine from synapses Various; blood levels Side effects must be monitored Decreased appetite Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) Electroconvulsive therapy [ECT] induces a mild seizure that disrupts severe depression for some people. This might allow neural re-wiring, and might boost neurogenesis. PSYCH4 | CH13 46 Repeated Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Another option is repeated deepbrain stimulation using implanted electrodes. Like ECT, these techniques may disrupt depressive electrochemical brain patterns. PSYCH4 | CH13 47 Psychosurgery A lobotomy destroys the connections between the frontal lobes and the rest of the brain. This decreases depression, but also destroys initiative, judgment, and cognition. Microsurgery might work by disrupting problematic neural networks involved with aggression or obsessivecompulsive disorder. Therapeutic Lifestyle Change We can indirectly affect the biological components of mental health problems. Exercise can boost serotonin levels and reduce stress. Changing negative thoughts can improve mood and even rewire the brain. Mental health problems also can be reduced by meeting our basic needs for sleep, nutrition, light, meaningful activity, and social connection. PSYCH4 | CH13 49 Preventing Psychological Disorders In addition to treating mental health disorders, some mental health professionals, especially social workers, also work to reduce the risk of mental health disorders. Such prevention efforts include: support programs for stressed families. community programs to provide healthy activities and hope for children. relationship-building communication skills training. working to reduce poverty and discrimination. PSYCH4 | CH13 50 Introduction to Psychology Chapter Fourteen PSYCH4 | CH14 51 LEARNING OUTCOMES (PSYCH 14) One of your friends asks you how you think people develop impressions and attitudes. Prepare a presentation that briefly overviews the psychological theories and findings in this area. PSYCH4 | CH14 52 LEARNING OUTCOMES (PSYCH 14) The social psychology of how people are influenced by others and how they behave in social settings is fascinating. Provide a presentation to overview these two areas, relating how psychological theories integrate or collide with our Christian beliefs. Is there room for both theories? PSYCH4 | CH14 53 Social Thinking Attribution: Identifying causes Attribution: a conclusion about the cause of an observed behavior/event. Attribution Theory: We explain others’ behavior with two types of attributions: Situational Attribution (factors outside the person doing the action, such as peer pressure), or Dispositional Attribution (the person’s stable, enduring traits, personality, ability, emotions) With all that we have learned about people so far in this course, you should make pretty good guesses about the nature of other people’s behavior, right? We, especially those raised in Western, Individualist cultures, tend to make Fundamental Attribution Error PSYCH4 | CH14 54 Social Thinking: Fundamental Attribution Error See if you can find the error in the following comment: “I noticed the new guy tripping and stumbling as he walked in. How clumsy can you be? Does he never watch where he’s going?” What’s the error? Hint: Next day… “Hey, they need to fix this rug! I tripped on it on the way in! Not everyone tripped? Well, not everyone had a test that day and their cell phone was buzzing.” The Fundamental Attribution Error: When we go too far in assuming that a person’s behavior is caused by their personality. We think a behavior demonstrates a trait. We tend to overemphasize __________ attribution and underemphasize __________ attribution. PSYCH4 | CH14 55 Social Thinking: Self vs. Other/Actors and Observers When we explain our OWN behavior, we partly reverse the fundamental attribution error: we tend to blame the situation for our failures (although we take personal credit for successes). This happens not just out of selfishness: it happens whenever we take the perspective of the actor in a situation, which is easiest to do for ourselves and people we know well. PSYCH4 | CH14 56 Social Thinking Emotional Effects of Attribution Problematic behavior: someone cuts in front of us. How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react to it. Social Thinking: Attitudes and Actions Attitude: Feelings, ideas, and beliefs that affect how we approach and react to other people, objects, and events. Attitudes, by definition, affect our actions; We shall see later that our actions can also influence our attitudes. PSYCH4 | CH14 58 Social Thinking: Persuasion Two cognitive pathways to affect attitudes Central Route Persuasion Going directly through the rational mind, influencing attitudes with evidence and logic. “My product has been proven more effective.” Peripheral Route Persuasion Changing attitudes by going around the rational mind and appealing to fears, desires, associations. “People who buy my product are happy, attractive!” PSYCH4 | CH14 59 Social Thinking: Actions affect attitudes: If attitudes direct our actions, can it work the other way around? How can it happen that we can take an action which in turn shifts our attitude about that action? Through three social-cognitive mechanisms: The Foot in the Door Phenomenon The Effects of Playing a Role, and Cognitive Dissonance PSYCH4 | CH14 60 Social Thinking: Small Compliance Large Compliance A political campaigner asks if you would open the door just enough to pass a clipboard through. [Or a foot] You agree to this. Then you agree to sign a petition. Then you agree to make a small contribution. By check. What happened here? PSYCH4 | CH14 61 Social Thinking: Small Compliance Large Compliance The Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: the tendency to be more likely to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one. Affect on attitudes: People adjust their attitudes along with their actions, liking the people they agreed to help, disliking the people they agreed to harm. PSYCH4 | CH14 62 Social Thinking: Role Playing Affects Attitudes “No man, for any considerable period, can wear one face to himself, and another to the multitude, without finally getting bewildered as to which may be the true [face].” -- Nathaniel Hawthorne “Fake it till you make it.” --Alcoholics Anonymous slogan When we play a role, even if we know it is just pretending, we eventually tend to adopt the attitudes that go with the role, and become the role. In arranged marriages, people often come to have a deep love for the person they marry. Actors say they “lose themselves” in roles. Participants in the Stanford Prison Study ended up adopting the attitudes of whatever roles they were randomly assigned to; “guards” had demeaning views of “prisoners,” “prisoners” had rebellious dislike of the “guards.” PSYCH4 | CH14 63 Social Thinking: Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance: When our actions are not in harmony with our attitudes. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: the observation that we tend to resolve this dissonance by changing our attitudes to fit our actions. Origin of Cognitive Dissonance Theory Festinger’s Study (1957): Students were paid either large or small amounts to express enjoyment of a boring activity. Then many of the students changed their attitudes about the activity. Which amount shifted attitudes? Getting paid more: “I was paid to say that.” Getting paid less: “Why would I say it was fun? Just for a dollar? Weird. Maybe it wasn’t so bad, now that I think of it.” PSYCH4 | CH14 64 Social Influence Social situations have many ways of influencing our behavior, attitudes, beliefs, and decisions. This social influence can take many forms, including: Conformity Obedience Group situations and group behavior, which leads to social facilitation social loafing polarization deindividuation groupthink PSYCH4 | CH14 65 Conformity What form of social influence is the subject of this cartoon? PSYCH4 | CH14 66 Social Influence Conformity: Mimicry and more Conformity refers to adjusting our behavior or thinking to fit in with a group standard. The power of Conformity has many components and forms, including Automatic Mimicry affecting behavior Social Norms affecting our thinking Normative and Informational Social Influence Social Influence Automatic Mimicry Some of our mimicry of other people is not by choice, but automatic: Contagious Yawning, as well as contagious arm folding, hand wringing, face rubbing… Adopting regional accents, grammar, and vocabulary Empathetic shifts in mood that fit the mood of the people around us Adopting coping styles of parents or peers, including violence, yelling, withdrawal. PSYCH4 | CH14 68 The Chameleon Effect: Unconscious Mimicry In an experiment, a confederate/collaborator of the experimenter intentionally rubbed his/her face or shook a foot; this seemed to lead to a greater likelihood of the study participant doing the same behavior. Obedience: Response to Commands Milgram wanted to study the influence of direct commands on behavior. The question: Under what social conditions are people more likely to obey commands? The experiment: An authority figure tells participants to administer shocks to a “learner” (who was actually a confederate of the researcher) when the learner gives wrong answers. Voltages increased; how high would people go? PSYCH4 | CH14 70 The Design of Milgram’s Obedience Study One layout of the study Ow! The “Learner” (working with researchers) Please continue. (Give the shock.) But… …okay. Shock levels in volts that participants thought they were giving Slight (15- Moderate Strong 60) (75-120) (135-180) Very strong (195-240) Intense (250-300) Extreme intensity (315-360) Danger: severe (375-420) XXX (435450) PSYCH4 | CH14 71 Compliance in Milgram’s Study In surveys, most people predict that in such a situation they would stop administering shocks when the “learner” expressed pain. But in reality, even when the learner complained of a heart condition, most people complied with the experimenter’s directions: “Please continue.” “You must continue.” “The experiment requires that you continue”… PSYCH4 | CH14 72 How far did compliance go? PSYCH4 | CH14 73 Similarity and Attraction Opposites Attract? Not usually. We already have seen: We like those who share our features. We also enjoy being around people who have similar attitudes, beliefs, humor, interests, intelligence, age, education, and income. We like those who have similar feelings, especially if they like us back. PSYCH4 | CH14 74 Keys to a Lasting Love Relationship Equity: Both giving and receiving, sharing responsibilities, with a sense of partnership Self-Disclosure: Sharing self in conversation increases intimacy Positive Interactions and Support: Offering sympathy, concern, laughs, hugs PSYCH4 | CH14 75 Altruism Unselfish regard for the welfare of other people; Helping and protecting others without need for personal gain, doing it because it is the right thing to do, often despite personal risk or sacrifice. The Psychology of Altruism Under what conditions do people help others? How do bystanders make a decision about helping? What cultural norms reinforce the motive to help others? PSYCH4 | CH14 76 Social Relations: Altruism/Helping Bystander Intervention When there is someone apparently suffering or otherwise in need of help, how do people make a decision to help? Attention: Appraisal: Social Role: Taking Action: PSYCH4 | CH14 77 Social Relations: Altruism/Helping Bystander Action: Social factors Why are there sometimes crowds of people near a suffering person and no one is helping? Because of the [Multiple] Bystander Effect: Fewer people help when others are available. Why does the presence of others reduce the likelihood that any one person will help? 1.Because of diffusion of responsibility: The role of helper does not fall just on one person. 2.People in a crowd follow the example of others; which means everyone waiting for someone else to help first. 3.After a while, people rationalize inaction: “if no one is helping, they must know he’s dangerous or faking it.” PSYCH4 | CH14 78 Social Relations: Altruism/Helping Other Factors promoting helping Bystanders are most likely to help when: The person we might help: appears to be in need, deserving of assistance. is a woman, and/or is similar to us in some way. is in a small town or rural area. Meanwhile, upon encountering this person: We are feeling some guilt, and/or just saw someone else trying to help. We are not in a hurry, and/or not preoccupied. Strongest predictor: We are in a good mood. PSYCH4 | CH14 79