Download Lego Mindstorms NXT 2.0 - hanan-salah

Basic Education College
Department of Computer Teacher
“LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT 2.0”
PREPARED
BY
Afaf mejbel AL-Ajmi
Hanan bahjat salah
Noura Al-asmar
Ohood motlg owaimer
SUPERVISOR
Dr : Abeer Al-ameeri
2013
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Acknowledgement
We are thankful to all who contributed in the output of this research is
to take effect, to all those who were the cause of our education and
guide us and help us.
Special thanks for Abeer Al-ameeri parameter on the efforts made by
the substance (ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE).
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Table of Contents
6 ........................... ................................ What is the definition of Artificial Intelligence ?
7 .................... ................................ ................................ history of artificial intelligence
8 .............................. ................................ The Advantages for Artificial Intelligence (AI)
8 .......................... ................................ The Disadvantages for Artificial Intelligence (AI)
9 ....................................... ................................ Applications of artificial intelligence :
9 .............. ................................ ................................ ................................ Finance
10 ...................... ................................ ................................ Hospitals and medicine
10 .................................. ................................ ................................ Heavy industry
11 ................................ ................................ Online and telephone customer service
11 ...................................... ................................ ................................ Transportation
11 .......................... ................................ ................................ Telecommunications
12 ................................ ................................ ................................ Toys and games
12 .............. ................................ ................................ ................................ Music
14 ............... ................................ ................................ News, Publishing & Writing
15 ............... ................................ ................................ ................................ Other
15 .................. ................................ Thing that comes to mind when you think of a robot ?
16 ......................................... ................................ Type of robots working for us today :
16 ................................... ................................ ................................ So what is a robot?
17 ...................................... ................................ ................................ Types of robot
17 .................................. ................................ ................................ Robots in society
18 ........................... ................................ ................................ Future development
18 ................................... ................................ ................................ Robotics sets :
19 .................................... ................................ ................................ WHAT IS LEGO?
20 ........................... ................................ ................................ LEGO MINDSTORMS:
21 ............................. ................................ ................................ WHAT IS THE RCX?
22 ............ ................................ ................................ LEGO MINDSTORM VIRSIONS:
22 ...................................... ................................ ................................ 1-Cybermaster
24 ......................................... ................................ ................................ 2- Codepilot
24 ............... ................................ ................................ ................................ 3- Scout
25 ..................................... ................................ ................................ 4- Micro Scout
25 ......................................... ................................ ................................ 5- Spybotics
25 ...................... ................................ ................................ 6- Lego Mindstorms NXT
25 ............... ................................ 7- LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT Educational Version
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26 ................ ................................ ................................ 8- Lego Mindstorms NXT 2.0
26 ........................ ................................ ................................ 9- Lego Mindstorm EV3
26 .............................. ................................ WHAT IS LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT 2.0?
26 ............. ................................ ................................ ................................ Kit features:
27 ......................... ................................ ................................ -NXT Intelligent Brick:
28 ................................... ................................ ................................ -ACTUATORS:
28 ........... ................................ ................................ ................................ Programming
29 ............ ................................ ................................ ................................ 1-NXT-G:
29 ............................. ................................ ................................ 2-LabVIEW Toolkit:
29 ...................................... ................................ ................................ 3-Lego::NXT:
29 ................. ................................ ................................ ................................ 4-Ada:
29 ...................................... ................................ 5-Next Byte Codes & Not eXactly C:
30 ........................................ ................................ ................................ 6-ROBOTC:
30 ........................................ ................................ ................................ 7-RoboMind:
30 ........................................ ................................ ................................ 8-NXTGCC:
30 .............. ................................ ................................ ................................ 9-URBI:
30 ..................................... ................................ ................................ 10-leJOS NXJ:
30 ....................................... ................................ ................................ 11-NxtOSEK:
30 .................. ................................ ................................ 12-MATLAB and Simulink:
31 ................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 13-Lua:
31 ...................... ................................ ................................ 14-FLL NXT Navigation:
31 ......................................... ................................ ................................ 15-ruby-nxt:
31 ............................... ................................ ................................ 16-Robotics. NXT:
32 ........................................ ................................ Lego mindstorms NXT disadvantages:
33 ...................................... ................................ LEGO MINDSTORMS ADVANTAGES:
33 ........................... ................................ ................................ Lego Mindstorms NXT:34 ..................... ................................ Why choose LEGO MINDSTORMS Education NXT?
35 ................................... ................................ ................................ Communications
35 ............... ................................ ................................ ................................ Memory
35 ................................ ................................ ................................ Tips and Tricks (1)
36 ................................ ................................ ................................ Tips and Tricks (2)
36 ................................... ................................ ................................ Common Blocks
39 ................ ................................ ................................ ................................ sound :
40 ................. ................................ ................................ ................................ move :
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41 ......................... ................................ ................................ EXAMPLES Example (1)
41 ........................................ ................................ ................................ Example(2) :
43 .............. ................................ ................................ ................................ References:
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:
What is the definition of Artificial Intelligence?
Artificial intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that emphasizes
the creation of intelligent machines that work and react like humans. Some of the
activities computers with artificial intelligence are designed for include speech
recognition, learning, planning and problem solving.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is technology and a branch of computer science
that studies and develops intelligent machines and software. Major AI researchers
and textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents where an
intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that
maximize its chances of success , " It is the science and engineering of making
intelligent machines especially intelligent computer program. It is related to the
similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence."
Artificial Intelligence is based on the that it is possible to describe and
simulate human intelligence in IT systems and devices. Therefore, it is also defined
as the study and design of systems or devices depicting the surrounding environment
so that behaved as a mimic human behavior.Knowledge engineering is a core part of
AI research. Machines can often act and react like humans only if they have
abundant information relating to the world. Artificial intelligence must have access
to objects, categories, properties and relations between all of them to implement
knowledge engineering. Initiating common sense, reasoning and problem-solving
power in machines is a difficult and tedious approach.
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History of artificial intelligence
The history of artificial intelligence began in antiquity, with myths, stories and
rumors of artificial beings endowed with intelligence or consciousness by master
craftsmen; as Pamela McCorduck writes The seeds of modern AI were planted by
classical philosophers who attempted to describe the process of human , thinking as
the mechanical manipulation of symbols. This work culminated in the invention of
the programmable digital computer in the 1940s, a machine based on the abstract
essence of mathematical reasoning. This device and the ideas behind it inspired a
handful of scientists to begin seriously discussing the possibility of building an
electronic brain.
The field of artificial intelligence research was founded at a conference on the
campus of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956. Those who attended would
become the leaders of AI research for decades. Many of them predicted that a
machine as intelligent as a human being would exist in no more than a generation
and they were given millions of dollars to make this vision come true. Eventually it
became obvious that they had grossly underestimated the difficulty of the project. In
1973, in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from
congress, the U.S. and British Governments stopped funding undirected research into
artificial intelligence. Seven years later, a visionary initiative by the Japanese
Government inspired governments and industry to provide AI with billions of
dollars, but by the late 80s the investors became disillusioned and withdrew funding
again. This cycle of boom and bust, of "AI winters" and summers, continues to haunt
the field. Undaunted, there are those who make extraordinary predictions even now.
The term artificial intelligence was first coined by John McCarthy in 1956 when he
held the first academic conference on the subject. But the journey to understand if
machines can truly think began much before that. In Vannevar Bush’s seminal work
As We May Think [Bush45] he proposed a system which amplifies people’s own
knowledge and understanding. Five years later Alan Turing wrote a paper on the
notion of machines being able to simulate human beings and the ability to do
intelligent things, such as play Chess [Turing50].
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The Advantages for Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Jobs - depending on the level and type of intelligence these machines receive in the
future, it will obviously have an effect on the type of work they can do, and how well
they can do it (they can become more efficient). As the level of AI increases so will
their competency to deal with difficult, complex even dangerous tasks that are
currently done by humans, a form of applied artificial intelligence.

They don't stop - as they are machines there is no need for sleep, they don't get ill ,
there is no need for breaks or Facebook, they are able to go, go, go! There obviously
may be the need for them to be charged or refueled, however the point is, they are
definitely going to get a lot more work done than we can. Take the Finance industry
for example, there are constant stories arising of artificial intelligence in finance and
that stock traders are soon to be a thing of the past.

No risk of harm - when we are exploring new undiscovered land or even planets,
when a machine gets broken or dies, there is no harm done as they don't feel, they
don't have emotions. Where as going on the same type of expeditions a machine
does, may simply not be possible or they are exposing themselves to high risk
situations.

Act as aids - they can act as 24/7 aids to children with disabilities or the elderly, they
could even act as a source for learning and teaching. They could even be part of
security alerting you to possible fires that you are in threat of, or fending off crime.

Their function is almost limitless - as the machines will be able to do everything (but
just better) essentially their use, pretty much doesn't have any boundaries. They will
make fewer mistakes, they are emotionless, they are more efficient, they
are basically giving us more free time to do as we please.
The Disadvantages for Artificial Intelligence (AI)
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
Over reliance on AI - as you may have seen in many films such as The Matrix,
iRobot or even kids films such as WALL.E, if we rely on machines to do almost
everything for us we become very dependent, so much so they have the potential to
ruin our lives if something were to go wrong. Although the films are essentially just
fiction, it wouldn't be too smart not to have some sort of back up plan to potential
issues on our part.

Human Feel - as they are machines they obviously can't provide you with that
'human touch and quality', the feeling of a togetherness and emotional understanding,
that machines will lack the ability to sympathise and empathise with your situations,
and may act irrationally as a consequence.

Inferior - as machines will be able to perform almost every task better than us in
practically all respects, they will take up many of our jobs, which will then result in
masses of people who are then jobless and as a result feel essentially useless. This
could then lead us to issues of mental illness and obesity problems etc.

Misuse - there is no doubt that this level of technology in the wrong hands can cause
mass destruction, where robot armies could be formed, or they could perhaps
malfunction or be corrupted which then we could be facing a similar scene to that of
terminator ( hey, you never know).

Ethically Wrong? - People say that the gift of intuition and intelligence was God's
gift to mankind, and so to replicate that would be then to kind of 'play God'.
Therefore not right to even attempt to clone our intelligence.
Applications of artificial intelligence :
Finance
Banks use artificial intelligence systems to organize operations, invest in stocks, and
manage properties. In August 2001, robots beat humans in a simulated financial
trading competition
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. Financial institutions have long used artificial neural network systems to detect
charges or claims outside of the norm, flagging these for human investigation. has
deployed artificial intelligence customer support systems, or automated online
assistants, at E*TRADE, HSBC, Intuit and Lloyds Banking Group, to assist financial
services customers with services such as checking an account balance, signing up for
a new credit card or retrieving a forgotten password.
Hospitals and medicine
A medical clinic can use artificial intelligence systems to organize bed schedules,
make a staff rotation, and provide medical information.
Artificial neural networks are used as clinical decision support systems for medical
diagnosis, such as in Concept Processing technology in EMR software.
Other tasks in medicine that can potentially be performed by artificial intelligence
include:
Computer - aided interpretation of medical images. Such systems help scan digital
images, e.g. from computed tomography, for typical appearances and to highlight
conspicuous sections, such as possible diseases. A typical application is the detection
of a tumor. Heart sound analysis.
Heavy industry
Robots have become common in many industries. They are often given jobs that are
considered dangerous to humans. Robots have proven effective in jobs that are very
repetitive which may lead to mistakes or accidents due to a lapse in concentration
and other jobs which humans may find degrading. Japan is the leader in using and
producing robots in the world. In 1999, 1,700,000 robots were in use worldwide.
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Online and telephone customer service
An automated online assistant providing customer service on a web page. Artificial
intelligence is implemented in automated online assistants that can be seen
as avatars on web pages. It can avail for enterprises to reduce their operation and
training cost. A major underlying technology to such systems is natural language
processing.
Similar techniques may be used in answering machines of call centres, such
as speech recognition software to allow computers to handle first level of customer
support, text mining and natural language processing to allow better customer
handling, agent training by automatic mining of best practices from past
interactions, support automation and many other technologies to improve agent
productivity and customer satisfaction.
Transportation
Fuzzy logic controllers have been developed for automatic gearboxes in automobiles
(the 2006 Audi TT, VW Toureg and VW Caravell feature the DSP transmission
which utilizes Fuzzy Logic, a number of Škoda variants (Škoda Fabia) also currently
include a Fuzzy Logic based controller).
Telecommunications
Many telecommunications companies make use of heuristic search in the
management of their workforces, for example BT Group has deployed heuristic
search in a scheduling application that provides the work schedules of 20,000
engineers.
Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the
human hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the
mechanical properties and touch receptors of human fingertips. The sensor array is
constructed as a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an
elastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are
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connected to an impedance-measuring device within the core. When the artificial
skin touches an object the fluid path around the electrodes is deformed, producing
impedance changes that map the forces received from the object. The researchers
expect that an important function of such artificial fingertips will be adjusting robotic
grip on held objects.
Scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand in
2009, called Smart Hand, which functions like a real one—allowing patients to write
with it, type on a keyboard, play piano and perform other fine movements. The
prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense real feeling in its fingertips.
Toys and games
The 1990s saw some of the first attempts to mass-produce domestically aimed types
of basic Artificial Intelligence for education, or leisure.
This prospered greatly with the Digital Revolution, and helped introduce people,
especially children, to a life of dealing with various types of Artificial Intelligence,
specifically in the form of Tamagotchis and Giga Pets, iPod Touch,
the Internet (example: basic search engine interfaces are one simple form), and the
first widely released robot, Furby. A mere year later an improved type of domestic
robot was released in the form of Aibo, a robotic dog with intelligent features
and autonomy. AI has also been applied to video games.
Music
The evolution of music has always been affected by technology. With AI, scientists
are trying to make the computer emulate the activities of the skillful musician.
Composition, performance, music theory, sound processing are some of the major
areas on which research in Music and Artificial Intelligence are focusing.
Aviation
The Air Operations Division AOD, uses AI for the rule based expert systems. The
AOD has use for artificial intelligence for surrogate operators for combat and
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training simulators, mission management aids, support systems for tactical decision
making, and post processing of the simulator data into symbolic summaries.
The use of artificial intelligence in simulators is proving to be very useful for the
AOD. Airplane simulators are using artificial intelligence in order to process the data
taken from simulated flights. Other than simulated flying, there is also simulated
aircraft warfare. The computers are able to come up with the best success scenarios
in these situations. The computers can also create strategies based on the placement,
size, speed, and strength of the forces and counter forces. Pilots may be given
assistance in the air during combat by computers. The artificial intelligent programs
can sort the information and provide the pilot with the best possible maneuvers, not
to mention getting rid of certain maneuvers that would be impossible for a human
being to perform. Multiple aircraft are needed to get good approximations for some
calculations so computer simulated pilots are used to gather data. These computer
simulated pilots are also used to train future eair traffic controllers.
The system used by the AOD in order to measure performance was the Interactive Fault
Diagnosis and Isolation System, or IFDIS. It is a rule based expert system put together by
collecting information from TF-30 documents and the expert advice from mechanics that
work on the TF-30. This system was designed to be used for the development of the TF-30
for the RAAF F-111C. The performance system was also used to replace specialized
workers. The system allowed the regular workers to communicate with the system and avoid
mistakes, miscalculations, or having to speak to one of the specialized workers.
The AOD also uses artificial intelligence in speech recognition software. The air
traffic controllers are giving directions to the artificial pilots and the AOD wants to
the pilots to respond to the ATC’s with simple responses. The programs that
incorporate the speech software must be trained, which means they use neural
networks. The program used, the Verbex 7000, is still a very early program that has
plenty of room for improvement. The improvements are imperative because ATCs
use very specific dialog and the software needs to be able to communicate correctly
and promptly every time.
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The Artificial Intelligence supported Design of Aircraft, or AIDA, is used to help
designers in the process of creating conceptual designs of aircraft. This program
allows the designers to focus more on the design itself and less on the design
process. The software also allows the user to focus less on the software tools. The
AIDA uses rule based systems to compute its data. This is a diagram of the
arrangement of the AIDA modules. Although simple, the program is proving
effective.
In 2003, NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Center, and many other companies,
created software that could enable a damaged aircraft to continue flight until a safe
landing zone can be reached. The software compensates for all the damaged
components by relying on the undamaged components. The neural network used in
the software proved to be effective and marked a triumph for artificial intelligence.
The Integrated Vehicle Health Management system, also used by NASA, on board
an aircraft must process and interpret data taken from the various sensors on the
aircraft. The system needs to be able to determine the structural integrity of the
aircraft. The system also needs to implement protocols in case of any damage taken
the vehicle.
News, Publishing & Writing
The company Narrative Science makes computer generated news and reports
commercially available, including summarizing team sporting events based on
statistical data from the game. It also creates financial reports and real estate
analyses.
Another company, called Yseop, uses artificial intelligence to turn structured data
into intelligent comments and recommendations in natural language. Yseop is able to
write financial reports, executive summaries, personalized sales or marketing
documents and more at a speed of thousands of pages per second and in multiple
languages including English, Spanish, French & German.
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Other
Various tools of artificial intelligence are also being widely deployed in homeland
security, speech and text recognition, data mining, and e-mail spam filtering.
Applications are also being developed for gesture recognition (understanding of sign
language by machines), individual voice recognition, global voice recognition (from
a variety of people in a noisy room), facial expression recognition for interpretation
of emotion and non verbal cues. Other applications are robot navigation, obstacle
avoidance, and What is the first object recognition.
Thing that comes to mind when you think of a robot?
For many people it is a machine that imitates a human—like the androids in Star
Wars, Terminator and Star Trek: The Next Generation. However much these robots
capture our imagination, such robots still only inhabit Science Fiction.
People still haven't been able to give a robot enough 'common sense' to reliably
interact with a dynamic world. However , Rodney Brooks and his team at MIT
Artificial Intelligence Lab are working on creating such humanoid robots.
The type of robots that you will encounter most frequently are robots that do work
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that is too dangerous, boring, onerous, or just plain nasty. Most of the robots in the
world are of this type. They can be found in auto, medical, manufacturing and space
industries. In fact, there are over a million of these .
Type of robots working for us today :
Some robots like the Mars Rover Sojourner and the upcoming Mars Exploration
Rover, or the underwater robot Caribou help us learn about places that are too
dangerous for us to go. While other types of robots are just plain fun for kids of all
ages. Popular toys such as Teckno, Polly or AIBO ERS-220 seem to hit the store
shelves every year around Christmas time.
And as much fun as robots are to play with, robots are even much more fun to build.
In Being Digital, Nicholas Negroponte tells a wonderful story about an eight year
old, pressed during a televised premier of MITMedia Lab's LEGO/Logo work at
Hennigan School. A zealous anchor, looking for a cute sound bite, kept asking the
child if he was having fun playing with LEGO/Logo.
Clearly exasperated, but not wishing to offend, the child first tried to put her off.
After her third attempt to get him to talk about fun, the child, sweating under the hot
television lights, plaintively looked into the camera and answered, "Yes it is fun, but
it's hard fun."
So what is a robot?
A robot is a mechanical or virtual agent, usually an electro-mechanical machine that
is guided by a computer program or electronic circuitry. Robots can
be autonomous or semi-autonomous and range from humanoids such
as Honda's Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility (ASIMO)
and Tosy's TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot (TOPIO) to
industrial robots, collectively programmed 'swarm' robots,
and even microscopic nano robots. By mimicking a lifelike
appearance or automating movements, a robot may convey a
sense of intelligence or thought of its own. Well it is a system
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that contains sensors, control systems, manipulators, power supplies and software all
working together to perform a task. Designing, building, programming and testing a
robots is a combination of physics, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering,
structural engineering, mathematics and computing. In some cases biology,
medicine, chemistry might also be involved. A study of robotics means that students
are actively engaged with all of these disciplines in a deeply problem-posing
problem-solving environment.
Types of robot
Types of robots come in all shapes and sizes. The purpose of each robot type is
engineered to perform and carry out its given responsibility. The different types of
robots are designed to operate in a fashion that helps our everyday lives.
They’re built with us in mind and have really improved our overall environment.
Below is a list of the primary types of robots in the world today.
 Rescue Robot
 Mobile Robot
 Domestic Bots
 Military Bots
 Medical Bots
 School Bots
 Reading Robot
Robots in society
TOPIO, a humanoid robot, played ping pong at Tokyo International Robot
Exhibition (IREX) 2009.
Roughly half of all the robots in the world are in Asia, 32% in Europe, and 16% in
North America, 1% in Australasia and 1% in Africa. 40% of all the robots in the
world are in Japan,[52] making Japan the country with the highest number of robots.
In Japan and other Asian countries, ideas of future robots have been mainly positive,
and the start of the pro-robotic society there is thought to be possibly due to the
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famous 'Astro Boy'. Asian societies such as Japan, and more recently in South Korea
and China, believe robots to be more equal to humans, having them care for old
people, play with or teach children, or replace pets etc. The general view in Asian
cultures is that the more robots advance, the better.
Future development
Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much
technological research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly
the Trade Ministry.
As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer
operating system designed mainly for robots. Robot Operating System is an opensource set of programs being developed at Stanford University, the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and the Technical University of Munich, Germany, among
others. ROS provides ways to program a robot's navigation and limbs regardless of
the specific hardware involved. It also provides high-level commands for items like
image recognition and even opening doors. When ROS boots up on a robot's
computer, it would obtain data on attributes such as the length and movement of
robots' limbs. It would relay this data to higher-level algorithms. Microsoft is also
developing a "Windows for robots" system with its Robotics Developer Studio,
which has been available since 2007 .
Robotics sets :
Main articles: Lego Mindstorms, Lego Mindstorms NXT, and Lego Mindstorms
NXT 2.0 , Lego initiated a robotics line of toys called 'Mindstorms' in 1998, and has
continued to expand and update this range ever since. and the name is taken from a
paper by Seymour Papert, a computer scientist and educator who developed the
educational theory of constructionism, and whose research was at times funded by
the Lego Group.
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WHAT IS LEGO?
Lego is a popular line of construction toys
manufactured by The Lego Group, a privately
held company based in Billund, Denmark. The
company's flagship product, Lego, consists of
colourful interlocking plastic bricks and an
accompanying array of gears, minifigures and
various other parts. Lego bricks can be
assembled and connected in many ways, to
construct such objects as vehicles, buildings, and
even working robots. Anything constructed can then be taken apart again, and the
pieces used to make other objects.
Lego began manufacturing interlocking toy bricks in 1949. Since then a global Lego
subculture has developed, supporting movies, games, competitions, and six themed
amusement parks.Lego initiated a robotics line of toys called 'Mindstorms' in 1998,
and has continued to expand and update this range ever since. The roots of the
product originate from a programmable brick developed at the MIT Media Lab, and
the name is taken from a paper by Seymour Papert, a computer scientist and educator
who developed the educational theory of constructionism, and whose research was at
times funded by the Lego Group.The programmable Lego brick which is at the heart
of these robotics sets has undergone several updates and redesigned, with the latest
being called the 'NXT' brick, being sold under the brand name of Lego Mindstorms
NXT 2.0. The set includes sensors that detect touch, light, sound and ultrasonic
waves, with several others being sold separately, including an RFID reader.
The intelligent brick can be programmed using official software available for
Windows and Mac computers, and is downloaded onto the brick via Bluetooth or a
USB cable. There are also several unofficial programs and compatible programming
languages that have been made to work with the brick, and many books have been
written to support this community.
There are several robotics competitions which use the Lego robotics sets.
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The earliest is Botball, a national U.S. middle- and high-school competition
stemming from the MIT 6.270 Lego robotics tournament. Other Lego robotics
competitions include Junior FIRST LEGO League (Jr.FLL) for students ages 6–9,
FIRST Lego League (FLL) for students ages 9–14, and FIRST Tech Challenge
(FTC) for high school students. Jr.FLL FLL, and FTC offer real-world engineering
challenges to participants. FLL uses Lego-based robots to complete tasks. Jr.FLL
participants build models out of Lego elements. FTC uses the NXT Intelligent brick
and its pieces along with another building platform called TETRIX. In its 2010
season, there were 16,070 FLL teams in over 55 countries. In its 2010 season, there
were 2,147 Jr.FLL teams with 12,882 total student participants in the United States
and Canada[24] The international RoboCup Junior football competition involves
extensive use of Lego Mindstorms equipment which is often pushed to its extreme
limits.
LEGO MINDSTORMS:
The LEGO Mindstorm series of kits contain software and hardware to create small,
customizable and programmable robots. They include a programmable brick
computer that controls the system, a set of modular sensors and motors, and LEGO
parts from the Technics line to create the mechanical systems.
The hardware and software roots of the Mindstorms Robotics Invention System kit
go back to the programmable brick created at the MIT Media Lab. This brick was
programmed in Brick Logo. The first visual programming environment was called
LEGO sheets,[1] since it was created by the University of Colorado in 1994 based on
Agent Sheets.
The original Mindstorms Robotics Invention System kit contained two motors, two
touch sensors, and one light sensor. The NXT version has three servo motors and
one light, sound, and distance as well as 1 touch sensor. The NXT 2.0 has 2 touch
sensors as well as a light and distance sensor, and support for 4 without using a
sensor multiplexer. LEGO Mindstorms may be used to build a model of an
embedded system with computer-controlled electromechanical parts. Many kinds of
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real-life embedded systems, from elevator controllers to industrial robots, may be
modelled using Mindstorms.
Mindstorms kits are also sold and used as an educational tool, originally through a
partnership between Lego and the MIT Media Laboratory. The educational version
of the products is called Lego Mindstorms for Schools, and comes with the
ROBOLAB GUI-based programming software, developed at Tufts University using
the National Instruments Lab VIEW as an engine.
In addition, the shipped software can be replaced with third party firmware and/or
programming languages, including some of the most popular ones used by
professionals in the embedded systems industry, like Java and C. The only difference
between the educational series, known as the "Challenge Set", and the consumer
series, known as the "Inventor Set", is that it includes another touch sensor and
several more gearing options.
WHAT IS THE RCX?
The first generation of Lego Mindstorms was built around a brick known as the RCX
(Robotic Command eXplorers). It contains an 8-bit Renesas (Then a part of Hitachi)
H8/300 microcontroller as its internal CPU. It also contains 32K of RAM that stores
the firmware and user programs. The brick is programmed by uploading a program
(written in one of several available programming languages) from a Windows or
Mac computer to the brick's RAM via a special infrared (IR) interface. After the user
starts a program, an RCX-enabled Mindstorms creation may function totally on its
own, acting on internal and external stimuli according to the programmed
instructions. Also, two or several more RCX bricks can communicate with each
other through the IR interface, enabling inter-brick cooperation or competition. In
addition to the IR port, there are three sensor input ports and three motor output ports
(also usable for lamps, etc.). There is also an LCD that can display the battery level,
the status of the input/output ports, which program is selected or running, and other
information.
21
Version 1.0 RCX bricks feature a power adapter jack to allow continuous operation
instead of the limited operation time when using batteries. In version 2.0 (as well as
later 1.0s included in the RIS 1.5), the power adapter jack was removed. Power
adapter equipped RCX bricks are popular for
stationary robotics projects (such as robot arms) or for
controlling Lego model trains. In the latter context, the
RCX needs to be programmed with Digital Command
Control (DCC) software to operate multiple wired
trains.
The IR interface on the RCX is able to communicate
with Spybots, Scout Bricks, Lego Train, and the NXT
(using a third-party infrared link sensor.) The RCX 1.0
IR receiver carrier frequency is 38.5 kHz, while the RCX 2.0 IR carrier frequency is
76 kHz. Both versions can transmit on either frequency.[6] The carrier signal is
generated by one of the RCX's internal timers. The RCX communicates with a
computer using a Serial or USB IR tower. The tower is supported by Windows 98,
Me, and XP (32-bit). A patch is available for hyper-threading/multi-core CPUs.
There is no formal support for Windows Vista (32-bit), but there are reports of
correct functionality. The USB tower does not work on a 64-bit OS unless a 32-bit
OS is used in conjunction with a virtual machine. The serial tower works normally
under 64-bit Windows 7 using a third-party USB-to-serial adapter.
All versions of the RCX have a unique number printed on it, necessary for technical
support and used as the ID number of the RCX for your Lego Mindstorms account
on the now-defunct Lego Mindstorms RCX website. The first RCX produced is
marked "000001" and was on display at the Mindstorms 10th Anniversary event.
LEGO MINDSTORM VIRSIONS:
1-Cybermaster
Cybermaster was mainly sold in Europe and Australia/New Zealand, but was
available for a short time in the United States via the Lego Club magazines. It was
22
aimed at a younger audience as an early attempt of merging computer gaming with
robotics and Lego.
The Pbrick shares many, especially software, features with the RCX but differs in
appearance and technical specifications: 1 output (plus 2 built-in) and 3 sensors.

It uses RF (27 MHz R/C band) instead of IR for communication.

It has two built-in motors with integrated tachometers and speedometers.

It is limited to passive sensors (a simple A/D with internal pull-up resistors).

The sensors shipped with it are color-coded and have internal resistors in
their open state (allowing the Pbrick to sense which sensor is attached to
which port).

It has a fixed firmware (so it cannot be upgraded or replaced).

It has limited RAM for programs (395 bytes) and only one program slot.
Despite its obvious limitations it has a number of advantages over its 'big brother',
the RCX.

The RF link has greater range and is omnidirectional.

The built-in tachometer and speedometer sensors on the internal motors
provides the same function as the external
rotation sensor to the RCX, but without using
up sensor ports.
This makes it very useful for various mobile
platforms and performing basic
motion/positioning tasks.
It talks the same protocol as the RCX but
cannot communicate directly to it (due to IR
vs RF) but with a repeater (a computer with 2 serial ports and a simple program) they
can be integrated.
23
2- Codepilot
Sold as part of the Barcode Truck kit. This unit was the first programmable brick (or
Pbrick). It features a single motor, a single touch sensor and a light sensor. It is
programmed by setting it to 'learn' and using the light sensor to feed barcoded
commands. The command set is very limited. Since barcode is just a series of
variances in light, this form of command entry was dubbed VLL (Visual Light Link)
and has been used in several later Lego models.
3- Scout
Lego also released a blue computer called the Scout, which has 2 sensor ports, 2
motor ports (plus one extra if linked with a Micro Scout using a fiber optic cable),
and a built in light sensor, but no PC interface. It comes with the Robotics Discovery
Set. The Scout can be programmed from a collection of built-in program
combinations. In order to program the Scout, a user must enable "power mode" on it.
The Scout can store one program.
The Scout is based on a Toshiba microcontroller with 32KB of ROM and 1KB of
RAM, where about 400 bytes are available for user-programs. Due to the extremely
limited amount of RAM, many predefined subroutines were provided in ROM. The
Scout only supports passive external sensors, which means that only touch,
temperature and other unpowered sensors can be used. The Analog-to-Digital
Converters used in the Scout does only have a resolution of 8 bits in contrast to the
10-bit converters of the RCX.
There was a plan for Lego to create a booster set that allows you to program the
Scout from a computer with a software such as RCX code. However, due to the
complexity of this project, it was abandoned.
The RCX can control the Scout brick using the "Send IR Message" program block.
The RCX does all of the controlling, and therefore can be programmed with the PC,
while the Scout accepts commands. The Scout brick must have all of its options set
to "off".
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4- Micro Scout
The Micro Scout was added as an entry level to Lego robotics. It is a very limited
Pbrick with a single built-in light sensor and a single built-in motor. It has seven
built-in programs and can be controlled by a Scout, Spybotics or RCX unit using
VLL. Like the Scout, the Micro Scout is also based on a microcontroller from
Toshiba.
The unit was sold as part of the Droid Developer Kit (featuring R2D2) and later the
Darkside Developer Kit (featuring an AT-AT Imperial Walker).
5- Spybotics
Spybotics is a robotics package. It consists of four colour-coded robots called
Spybots, a programming language with which to control the Spybots, and ten
simulated missions.
6- Lego Mindstorms NXT
Lego Mindstorms NXT is a programmable robotics kit released by Lego in July
2006, replacing the first-generation LEGO Mindstorms kit. The kit consists of 577
pieces, including: 3 servo motors, 4 sensors (ultrasonic, sound, touch, and light), 7
connection cables, a USB interface cable, and the NXT Intelligent Brick. The
Intelligent Brick is the "brain" of a Mindstorms machine. It lets the robot
autonomously perform different operations. The kit also includes NXT-G , a
graphical programming environment that enables the creation and downloading of
programs to the NXT. The software also has instructions for 4 robots; Alpha-Rex (a
humanoid), Tri-Bot (a car), Robo-Arm T-56 (a robotic arm), and Spike (a scorpion)
7- LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT Educational Version
This is the educational version of the NXT set from LEGO Education, which is made
for school use. Software is sold separately, and the Education Resource Set for the
best use. It includes a light sensor, an ultrasonic sensor, a sound sensor, three lamps
and a pair of touch sensors. The first set consists of about 400 pieces, and the extra
set consists of about 600 pieces. The Education Version is most suited for those who
25
have older versions of MINDSTORMS sets around, mostly thanks to its 3 converter
cables. It costs about US$410.00 with the Bluetooth Dongle
8- Lego Mindstorms NXT 2.0
The Lego Mindstorms NXT 2.0 was launched on 5 August 2009. It contains 619
pieces (includes sensors and motors), two Touch Sensors, an Ultrasonic Sensor, and
introduced a new Color Sensor. The NXT 2.0 uses Floating Point operations whereas
earlier versions use Integer operation.[10] The kit costs around USD 280.
9- Lego Mindstorm EV3
Lego announced the third generation Mindstorm platform called EV3. EV3 is a
further development of the NXT.[11] The system will be available fall 2013. The
LEGO MINDSTORMS EV3 set will include motors, sensors, the programmable
brick, 550+ LEGO Technic elements and a remote control. One of the new features
of the EV3 would be that it would be possible to not only use direct commands or
the programs to control the programmable brick as was possible before, but also
through an app via a smart device.
WHAT IS LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT 2.0?
It is the second set from LEGO's Lego Mindstorms series, launched on August 5,
2009 at the Lego Shop in the U.S. The set contains 619 pieces, including a new
sensor that can detect colors. It is priced at approximately US$280, C$350, £230 or
A$500.
Kit features:

Includes a sound editor, which may record any sound and then program the
NXT Brick to play it.

With the image editor you can upload a picture to the NXT Brick to appear
on the screen.

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Includes 619 pieces (including the NXT Brick)
-NXT Intelligent Brick:

32-bit Atmel AT91SAM7S256 main microcontroller (256 KB flash memory,
64 KB RAM)

8-bit Atmel ATmega48 microcontroller @ 4 MHz (4 KB flash memory, 512
Bytes RAM)

100x64 pixel LCD Screen

four 6-pin input ports (ports 1-4)

three 6-pin output ports (ports A-C)

USB Port

Bluetooth Class II V2.0

Loudspeaker - 8 kHz sound quality, 8-bit resolution, 2–16 kHz sample rate

Four Push Buttons
Orange button: On/Enter
Light grey arrows: moving left and right in the NXT menu
Dark grey button: Clear/Go back

Powered by six AA batteries or the NXT Rechargeable DC Battery
-SENSORS:
Parts can be ordered separately. In the original kit, the sensors included are the
Color, 2 Touch, and an Ultrasonic.

Color Sensor (9694), for detecting 6 different colors: blue, green, red, yellow,
white, black

Light Sensor (9844), for detecting levels of light. (Included in first version,
but in 2.0, replaced by Color Sensor.)

Touch Sensor (9843), a simple button that senses if something collided with
it.

Ultrasonic Sensor (9846), for measuring distances using inaudible sound
waves.
27

Sound Sensor (9845), for basic "hearing". Capable of measuring volume, but
cannot record actual sounds.

Compass Sensor (MS1034), for detecting direction. Has a built-in calibrator
to reduce interference from other magnetic items. (Not included in basic kit,
for advanced users.)

Accelerometer Sensor (MS1040), for sensing which general direction it's
moving in. Also can measure G-force. (Not included in basic kit, for
advanced users.)

RF-ID Sensor, for communication between multiple robots. (Not included in
basic kit, for VERY advanced users.)

Rotation Sensor (Built into Servo Motors), for measuring how far it has
turned. This is unique, because it measures based on the turn of the gears
inside, rather than the motor itself. Useful for robots that will coast and act
based on distance rolled.
Bluetooth communication (Built into "Intelligent brick"), for communication with
other devices. Can be used mid-program, or for downloading new programs and data
-ACTUATORS:

Servo Motor (9842)

The color sensor can shine light in red, green, or blue. (Normally it senses
color by using the lamp in a setting and reading the reflected light levels. It
uses the same lamp here for other uses.)
Programming
Very simple programs can be created using the NXT Intelligent Brick itself. In order
to create larger, more complex programs, programming software on a PC is required.
The standard programming software is NXT-G, which is included in the package.
Third-party programming software is also available, some of which is listed below:
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1-NXT-G:
NXT-G is the programming software included in the standard base kit. It is based on
LabVIEW graphical programming. It features an interactive drag-and-drop
environment.
2-LabVIEW Toolkit:
NXT-G is powered by LabVIEW, an industry standard in programming. Created by
National Instruments, LabVIEW uses data flow programming to create a virtual
instrument. To allow for more advanced programming, in the graphical sense,
National Instruments released a Toolkit for the NXT. Version 1.0 came out in
December 2006. Since its release, several bugs have been found and new sensors
have been created. While the toolkit does allow for the creation of new sensors,
National Instruments has yet to formally release an update.
3-Lego::NXT:
Lego::NXT provides an API between Perl and NXT.
4-Ada:
A port of GNAT is available for the NXT. It requires nxtOSEK to run. The port
includes Ada bindings to the NXT hardware and nxtOSEK.
5-Next Byte Codes & Not eXactly C:
Next Byte Codes (NBC) is a simple open-source language with an assembly
language syntax that can be used to program the NXT brick.
Not eXactly C (NXC) is a high level open-source language, similar to C, built on top
of the NBC compiler. It can also be used to program the NXT brick. NXC is
basically NQC for the NXT.[2] It is the most widely used third-party programming
language.
29
6-ROBOTC:
ROBOTC is an Integrated development environment targeted towards students that
is used to program and control LEGO NXT, VEX, RCX, and Arduino robots using a
programming language based on the C programming language.
7-RoboMind:
RoboMind is an educational programming environment that offers a concise
scripting language for programming a simulated robot. These internationalized
scripts can, however, also directly be exported to Lego Mindstorms robots. It does
not requires custom firmware in order to run.
8-NXTGCC:
NXTGCC is a GCC toolchain for programming the NXT firmware in C.
9-URBI:
URBI is a parallel and event-driven language, with interfaces to C++/Java and
Matlab. It also has a component architecture (UObject) for distributed computation.
Urbi is compatible with many robots, including Nao (cf Robocup), Bioloid or Aibo.
10-leJOS NXJ:
leJOS NXJ is a high level open source language based on Java that uses custom
firmware developed by the leJOS team.
11-NxtOSEK:
To be able to write in C (programming language)/C++, nxtOSEK can be used, but
that requires custom firmware too.
12-MATLAB and Simulink:

MATLAB is a high-level programming language for numerical computing,
data acquisition and analysis. It can be used to control LEGO NXT robots
over a Bluetooth serial port (serial port communication is part of the base
30
functionality of MATLAB) or via a USB connection; for example using the
RWTH - Mindstorms NXT Toolbox (free & open-source).

Simulink is a MATLAB-based environment for modeling and simulating
dynamic systems. Using Simulink, a user can design control algorithms,
automatically generate C code for those algorithms, and download the
compiled code onto the LEGO NXT.
MATLAB and Simulink code for NXT programming is freely available.
13-Lua:
pbLua is an implementation of the Lua programming language, a general purpose
scripting language, for Lego Mindstorms.
14-FLL NXT Navigation:
FLL Nxt Navigation An open source program to help navigation on the FLL
competition table. Uses NXT-G and .txt files to write programs.
15-ruby-nxt:
ruby-nxt is a library to program the NXT for the Ruby programming language.
Unlike the other languages for the NXT the code isn't compiled to a binary file.
Instead the code is directly transmitted to the NXT via a bluetooth connection. This
method of execution is significantly slower than executing compiled code directly.
16- Robotics. NXT:
Robotics.NXT is a Haskell interface to NXT over Bluetooth. It supports direct
commands, messages and many sensors (also unofficial). It
has also support for a simple message-based control of a
NXT brick via remotely executed program (basic NXC
code included).
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Lego mindstorms NXT disadvantages:

Incompatible cable connectors that need to be purchased from LEGO and are
costly, without any good reason (except, perhaps, avoiding the risk of
American citizens plugging in a phone cable, if it was compatible).

Messed-up bluetooth communication - they have invented an unreliable
communication protocol on top of a reliable one - very stupid...
(http://www.tau.ac.il/~stoledo/lego/btperformance.html)

rechargeable battery module is too large, rendering many projects that are
created for brick powered by AA cells useless, because the parts cannot be
mounted when the battery module is obstructing the space under the brick

early versions of firmware had a flaw in the firmware upgrade process, which
was very impractical, fortunately, this has been fixed in later versions

the software had many serious bugs (and still has some) making the work
sometimes difficult, it is also not localized to many languages, making it
difficult for kids who do not read English fluently to work with it

The NXT-G software is not open-source!!! And you cannot build your own
blocks without expensive commercial Lab View licence :-(

Flash memory too small, 256KB is nothing. You can buy 4GB low cost flash
disk, but they put 256 KB as the memory storage in a product released in
2006??? Wtf?

The original RCX touch sensor was an analogue sensor, the NXT touch sensor
is a 0/1 switch.

The support for user blocks in the software is poor: the blocks are saved into
separate directory, and they are not copied when you save your project to a
different disk or folder - this results in a lot of disappointment when you learn
that you did not copy your user blocks.

big blunder: the program created in NXT-G does not have a textual
representation, which would be easy to view, understand, debug, etc. (this is
implied by the choice for using Lab View kernel, which was a huge mistake)

very little support for creating interactive projects that communicate with PC
while the project runs.

32
LEGO MINDSTORMS ADVANTAGES:

the start up time for working with NXT is very short

the assembly of the robot is very intuitive and no electrical wiring is necessary

no workshop are needed .

very familiar to the student.
Lego Mindstorms NXT:Lego Mindstorms NXT is a programmable
robotics kit released by Lego in late July
2006. The NXT is the brain of a Mindstorms
robot. It's an intelligent, computer
Controlled Lego brick that lets a Mindstorms
robot come alive and perform different
operations.
Fig. 1. The Lego Mindstorms NXT. In the center, the NXT brick 1. Above, the three servo
motors 6. Below, the four sensors: touch 2, sound 3, light 4 and ultrasonic 5.
The NXT has three output ports for attaching motors – Ports A, B and C and four
input ports for attaching sensors – Ports 1, 2, 3 and 4. It’s possible to connect a USB
cable to the USB port and download programs from a computer to the NXT (or
upload data from the robot to the computer). As an alternative the wireless Bluetooth
connection can be used for uploading and downloading.
In the specific case of our project we simply needed two motors (connected at ports
A and C), but we used all the input ports for sensors (Ultrasonic Sensor – port 1,
HiTechnic [20] Compass Sensor – port 2, HiTechnic Color Sensor – port 3, Sound
Sensor – port 4).
33
Why choose LEGO MINDSTORMS Education NXT?
LEGO MINDSTORMS Education (LME) is designed specifically for teachers and
other adults working with groups of children aged 8 and up, combining a versatile
LEGO building set, user-friendly software and progressive educational activities.
LME provides a cost effective, motivating and highly enjoyable solution to cover
local curriculum areas in science, engineering, control, design and technology.
The software used is based on industry standard programming language that is
effective to learn due to its icon based origins.
By building and programming smart robots in a natural, step-by-step learning
process, students put their knowledge into practice – and are challenged to come up
with new ideas themselves.
Explain Tools program Lego Mindstorms NXT 2.0
34
Communications
When connected by USB cable or Bluetooth
Give your NXT a new name Check Battery voltage
View available memory (in KiloBytes)
Firmware version .
Memory
Select, then delete Programs, Sounds, Graphics,
and Unused files. Can free up to 130Kb of Free
Storage on the NXT.
Tips and Tricks (1)
 The NXT has memory to store many programs

NXT automatically powers down.
 Bluetooth Communications

The NXT has bluetooth communications. If enabled, PCs, NXTs
and other bluetooth devices can talk to each other.

35
Disable bluetooth during competition
Tips and Tricks (2)
 Direction of connecting wires
 NXT wire connectors only fit one way. Can not be rotated.
 Batteries

AA

No worry about losing firmware.

NiMH rechargeable batteries work. NiCads don't.

Lithium rechargeables come with the

FLL Mindstorm kits.
Avoid stalling the motors, it drains batteries.
Pointer Tool
Grab Hand
to move the
display
Comment
Common Blocks
 Common blocks are full featured actions

Like English statements
o Move
o Wait for an action
Move Block
o Display a value

With many modifiers
o Move direction, steering, distance, motors used . . .
36
Wait for light sensor, light threshold, sensor port, . . .
MoveBlock Settings
o
Move
Sound
Display
Switch (Touch)
37
38
The big open area (the graph paper) is your Work Area. Notice that right now there
are only two items in the program steps -- the left one signifies the Start of your
program and the right one is a placeholder for the first block or statement in your
program .
Along the left side of the window is the Programming Palette containing action
blocks you select and place into your program. Each block does something different,
you will learn about many of them in future projects. Think of them as “verbs”, these
are the commands that tell your NXT Brick what to do and when. At the bottom of
the Programming Palette are Palette Selector tabs where you can select other palettes
of blocks.
Along the top of the window are the Menu and Tool Bars. In the Menu bar you see
the usual Windows menus, such as “File”, “Edit” and so on. Below that is the Tool
bar, with quick-access commands that can speed up many common operations. As
you hover your mouse above them you see a brief description (a “tooltip”) that tells
you what that button does.
In the lower right corner are the Map and Help tabs, these let you scroll around in
a big program and get help for each type of block. The Configuration Panel in the
lower left allows you to make selections and adjustments for any action block.
sound :
Sound block inserted after the Start Program Block as shown. Look at the bottom left
of the window, the Configuration Panel should be displayed. This is where you make
settings for that Sound block
:
39
If not already selected, click on the Help tab (?) as shown and hover your mouse
over the Sound block. You should then see information about the Sound block. For
more detailed help you can click on “More Help >>” and additional info, samples
and other links will appear:
The Configuration panel for the Sound block allows you to select several kinds of
sounds .
Depending on the “Action” you select, your robot will play a sound from a Sound
File (which you select) or a Tone, which you pick with a small piano-style keyboard.
Your NXT Brick can play complex sounds (like voice and music) but it’s a small
speaker, so it’s not very loud.
move :
a Move block. In the Programming Palette it looks like two meshing gears. Here are
two screen shots – selecting a Move block, and the Move block in place in your
program:
Immediately after inserting the Move block the configuration panel allows you to
make quite a few settings. It seems to be pretty dense with information, let’s review
the parts that we’ll use in this activity:
Port: Which motors to control?
Which motor is on
RIGHT?
40
Direction: Forward, Reverse or Stop?
Turn: Go Left
, Right or Straight?
Which motor is on
the LEFT?
turn?
What to do the
after turning?
EXAMPLES
Example (1)
The program is making the robot moves forward and then moving to the right, and
continues to do so until there any things stop the robot body.
The robot will do: Move forward for 5sec.
 Wait for 3sec.
 Turn right in 3sec.
 Wait for 3sec.
 Play sound for about 0.5sec
Example(2) :
This robot works on the balls of where colors :
1 - if white ball putt in the right .
2 - if black ball putt in the left .
3 - Otherwise does not implement any order .
Initially requires: Show voice, and then walk .
41
Upon completion of the work: Stops for three seconds and then moving for four
seconds and then stand and thus completed what is required.
42
References:
1- Brooks, R. A., “Intelligence without Reason”, In Proceedings of the 12th
International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, pp. 569-595.
Sydney, Australia, 1991
2- Currie, Adam (1999). "The History of Robotics". Retrieved 2007-09-10.
3- Forster, Dion (2006). "Self validating consciousness in strong artificial
intelligence: An African theological contribution". Pretoria: University
of South Africa.
4- Crevier, Daniel (1993), AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial
Intelligence, New York, NY: BasicBooks, ISBN 0-465-02997-3
5- Juan Antonio Breña Moral, “Develop leJOS Programs Step by Step”,
Version 0.4, July 2008
6- McCorduck, Pamela (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd ed.), Natick, MA:
A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN 1-56881-205-1
7- Neil Rosenberg , " Workshop – NXT Programming For Beginners " ,
Summer, 2012 , 10 June, 2013 .
http://www.rocwnc.org/Beginning_NXT_Programming_Workshop.pdf
8- http://www.hightechkids.org/sites/default/files/CoachingLibrary/fll_prog
ramming_101_nxt_g.pdf
9- ^ Not eXactly C
10- ^ NBC/NXC - NeXT Byte Codes and Not eXactly C
11- ^ RoboMind's Lego Mindstorms NXT support
12- ^ URBI NXT Page
13- ^ LeJOS, Java for Lego Mindstorms
14- ^ http://lejos-osek.sourceforge.net/index.php
43