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From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, European Christians carried out a series of military expeditions to regain the Holy
Land from the Muslims. These expeditions are known as the Crusades.
The Early Crusades
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What were the religious, political, and economic motivations behind the Crusades?
The Crusades started when the Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus asked for help against the Seljuk Turks. The Seljuk Turks
were Muslims who had taken control of Asia Minor. Pope Urban II, who responded to the request, saw an opportunity to provide
leadership for a great cause. That cause was rallying Europe's warriors to free Jerusalem and the Holy Land from people whom
Christians viewed as infidels or unbelievers—the Muslims.
At the Council of Clermont in southern France near the end of 1095, Urban II asked Christians to take up their weapons and join in a
holy war. The pope promised: "All who die . . . shall have immediate remission [forgiveness] of sins." The enthusiastic crowd cried out:
"It is the will of God, it is the will of God."
Warriors of western Europe, particularly France, formed the first crusading armies. These knights were mostly motivated by religious
fervor, but some sought adventure and welcomed the chance to fight. Others saw a chance to gain wealth and a possible title. Italian
merchants also sought new trade in Byzantine and Muslim lands.
After asking for help, the Byzantines became doubtful. Alexius I, and his daughter, Anna Comnena (who was also the Byzantines'
only female historian), were fearful that the western crusading armies, which would have to go through Byzantine lands to reach their
objective, might prove harmful to the Byzantine Empire.
Regardless, the First Crusade began as three organized bands of mostly French warriors made their way to the East. The crusading
army, which included thousands of men in cavalry and infantry, captured Antioch in 1098. The crusaders proceeded down the
Palestinian coast, avoiding the well­defended coastal cities, and reached Jerusalem in June 1099. The Holy City was taken amid a
horrible massacre of its inhabitants.
After further conquests, the crusaders organized four Latin crusader states in the East. One of these was the kingdom of Jerusalem
under Godfrey de Bouillon, one of the Frankish leaders of the First Crusade. Godfrey, however, rejected the title of king, protesting
that it belonged only to God. Surrounded by Muslims, these crusader kingdoms depended on Italian cities for supplies. Some Italian
port cities, such as Genoa, Pisa, and especially Venice, grew rich and powerful in the process.
It was not easy, however, for the crusader kingdoms to maintain themselves in the East. By the 1140s, the Muslims had begun to
strike back. The fall of one of the Latin kingdoms to the Muslims led to calls for another crusade, especially from the monastic leader
Bernard of Clairvaux.
Now, on account of our sins, the sacrilegious enemies of the cross have begun to show their faces. . . . What are you doing, you
servants of the cross?…Will you cast pearls before swine?
—Bernard of Clairvaux
Bernard managed to enlist two powerful rulers, King Louis VII of France and Emperor Conrad III of Germany, in a Second Crusade.
This campaign, however, was a total failure.
In 1187 Jerusalem fell to Muslim forces under Saladin. Saladin had made himself sultan of Egypt in 1169 and then become leader of
the Muslim offensive against the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem. After Saladin’s success, three European rulers then agreed to lead
a Third Crusade: German emperor Frederick Barbarossa, English king Richard I (Richard the Lionhearted), and French king Philip II
Augustus.
Some members of the Third Crusade arrived in the East by 1189, only to encounter problems. Frederick drowned in a local river. The
English and French arrived by sea and captured the coastal cities but were unable to move inland. After Philip returned home,
Richard negotiated a settlement with Saladin that permitted Christian pilgrims free access to Jerusalem.
Summarizing How many early Crusades were there? What was the common factor?
The Later Crusades
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How did the Crusades affect Europe and Southwest Asia?
About six years after Saladin’s death in 1193, Pope Innocent III initiated the Fourth Crusade. As it headed east, the crusading army
became involved in a fight over the Byzantine throne. The Venetian leaders of the Crusade used the situation to weaken their
greatest commercial competitor, the Byzantine Empire. In 1204 the crusaders sacked Constantinople, adding to the division between
the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church. Western forces also set up a new Latin empire of Constantinople.
Not until 1261 did a Byzantine army recapture the city, but the Byzantine Empire was no longer a great Mediterranean power. It now
comprised the city of Constantinople and its surrounding lands, as well as part of Asia Minor. The empire limped along for another
190 years, until its weakened condition enabled the Ottoman Turks to conquer it in 1453.
Despite failures, the crusading ideal continued. In Germany in 1212, a youth known as Nicholas of Cologne announced that God had
inspired him to lead a "children's crusade" to the Holy Land. Thousands of young people joined Nicholas and made their way down
the Rhine and across the Alps to Italy, where the pope told them to go home. Most tried to do so. At about the same time, a group of
about 20,000 French children headed to Marseille, where two shipowners agreed to take them to the Holy Land. Seven ships filled
with youths left the port. Two of the ships went down in a storm. The other five sailed to North Africa, where the children were sold into
slavery.
The next Crusades of adult warriors were hardly more successful. The last two major Crusades were organized by the king of France,
Louis IX. After his defeat by Baybars, the sultan of Egypt, Louis tried again but died of the plague without any conquests.
Did the Crusades have much effect on European civilization? Historians disagree. Clearly, the Crusades benefited the Italian port
cities. Even without the Crusades, however, Italian merchants would have increased trade with the Eastern world.
The Crusades had some unfortunate side effects on European society. The first widespread attacks on the Jews began in the context
of the Crusades. Some Christians argued that to fight the Muslims while the Jews, whom they blamed for Jesus’s death, ran free at
home was unthinkable. The Jews of medieval Europe came to be subjected to periodic libels, attacks, and expulsions.
Perhaps the greatest impact of the Crusades was political. They eventually helped to break down feudalism. As kings levied taxes
and raised armies, nobles joining the Crusades sold their lands and freed their serfs. As nobles lost power, the kings created
stronger central governments. Taxing trade with the East also provided kings with new sources of wealth. This paved the way for the
development of true nation­states. By the mid­1400s, three strong nation­states—Spain, England, and France—had emerged in
Europe.
Monitoring Was the Fourth Crusade successful? Explain your answer.
Reviewing Vocabulary
1. Inferring Why did the Christians believe that Jerusalem was controlled by infidels?
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2. Identifying What was the cause of the libels against Jews in medieval Europe?
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Using Your Notes
3. Identifying Use your notes to identify each Crusade and the result of each.
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Answering the Guiding Questions
4. Drawing Conclusions What were the religious, political, and economic motivations behind the Crusades?
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5. Evaluating How did the Crusades affect Europe and Southwest Asia?
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Writing Activity
6. PERSONAL Imagine you were a crusader under German emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Write a letter back home explaining the
death of Frederick and your reactions to it.
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