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3-1:
Structure of the Human Brain (Figure 3-6)
Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education
Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
3-2:
Neurons in the Brain (Figure 3-5)
Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education
Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
3-3:
Examples of Risk Factors for Healthy Neurological Development (Table 3-1)
Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education
Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
5 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
DARWINIAN EVOLUTION THEORY
[FROM: MICHAEL SHERMER’S (2002) In Darwin’s Shadow: The life and Science of
Alfred Russel Wallace. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, p. 207.]
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EVOLUTION: CHANGE (in behavior)THROUGH
TIME.
DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION: THE MODE OF
EVOLUTION BY BRANCHING COMMON
DESCENT.
GRADUALISM: CHANGE (in behavior) IS SLOW,
STEADY, STATELY. NATURA NON FACIT SALTUS.
GIVEN ENOUGH TIME EVOLUTION CAN
ACCOUNT FOR THE ORIGIN OF NEW SPECIES.
MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIATION:
EVOLUTION PRODUCES NOT JUST NEW SPECIES
(behavior), BUT AN INCREASING NUMBER OF NEW
SPECIES (behaviors).
NATURAL SELECTION: THE MECHANISM OF
EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE CAN BE SUBDIVIDED
INTO FIVE STEPS: (SEE NEXT SLIDE).
FIVE STEPS OF
NATURAL SELECTION
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1. POPULATIONS [behaviors] TEND TO INCREASE
INDEFINITELY IN A GEOMETRIC RATIO. [FROM
OBSERVATION]
2. IN A NATURAL ENVIRONMENT, HOWEVER,
POPULATION [behavior] NUMBERS STABILIZE AT A
CERTAIN LEVEL. [FROM OBSERVATION]
THERE MUST BE A “STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE”
SINCE NOT ALL ORGANISMS [behaviors]
PRODUCED CAN SURVIVE. [FROM INFERENCE]
THERE IS VARIATION IN EVERY SPECIES
[behaviors]. [FROM OBSERVATION]
IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, THOSE
VARIATIONS THAT ARE BETTER ADAPTED TO
THE ENVIRONMENT LEAVE BEHIND MORE
OFFSPRING THAN THE LESS WELL ADAPTED
INDIVIDUALS, ALSO KNOWN AS DIFFERENTIAL
REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS. [FROM INFERENCE]
BEHAVIORISTS’:
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF BEHAVIORISM
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PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING SHOULD APPLY
EQUALLY TO DIFFERENT BEHAVIORS AND TO
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ANIMALS
LEARNING PROCESSES CAN BE STUDIED MOST
OBJECTIVELY WHEN THE FOCUS OF STUDY IS
ON STIMULI AND RESPONSES.
INTERNAL PROCESSES ARE LARGELY EXCLUDED
FROM SCIENTIFIC STUDY
LEARNING INVOLVES A BEHAVIOR CHANGE
ORGANISMS ARE BORN AS BLANK SLATES (tabula
rasa).
LEARNING IS LARGELY THE RESULT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS.
THE MOST USEFUL THEORIES TEND TO BE
PARSIMONIOUS ONES.
Concept Map:
Behavioral Approaches
Approaches to Learning
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
SOCIAL
COGNITIVE
APPROACHES
TO LEARNING
Evaluating the
Social Cognitive
Approaches
Bandura’s Social
Cognitive Theory
Observatio
nal
Learning
Cognitive
Behavior
Approaches
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
• Bandura’s social cognitive
theory
– Social cognitive theory
– Reciprocal determinism model
– Self-efficacy
Bandura’s Reciprocal
Determinism Model of Learning
B
Behavior
P/C
Person and
cognitive factors
E
Environment
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
• Observational learning
– What is observational learning?
– The classic Bobo doll study
– Bandura’s contemporary model of
observational learning
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Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Reinforcement of incentive
conditions
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
• Cognitive behavior approaches
and self-regulation
– Cognitive behavior approaches
• Self-instructional methods
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning
– Self-regulatory learning
• A model of self-regulatory learning
Self-Evaluation
and Monitoring
Goal Setting and
Strategic Planning
Monitoring Outcomes
and Refining Strategies
Putting a Plan into
Action and Monitoring It
Self Regulated Learning:
From Social/Cognitive Theory.
Key people:
Bandura; Schunk; Zimmerman.
Key elements:
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Goal Setting
Planning
Self-motivation (intrinsic motivation)
Attention control
Application of learning strategies
Self-monitoring
Self-evaluation
Self-reflection
General Assumptions of Cognitive
Theories
 Some Learning Processes may be unique to
human beings.
 Cognitive processes are the focus of study.
 Objective, systematic observations of
people’s behavior should be the focus of
scientific inquiry; however, inferences
about unobservable mental processes can
often be drawn from behavior.
 Individuals are actively involved in the
learning process.
 Learning involves the formation of mental
representations or associations that are not
necessarily reflected in overt behavior
changes.
Implications of
Cognitive Theories
 Cognitive processes influence
learning.
 As children grow, they become
capable of increasingly more
sophisticated thought.
 People organize the things they
learn.
 New information is most easily
acquired when people can associate
it with things they have already
learned.
 People control their own learning.
Some key Cognitive
theorists
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Jean Piaget (French)
Lev Vygotsky (RUSSIAN)
Edward Tolman (American)
Jerome Bruner (American)
Kurt Lewin (German)
Kurt Lewin (From Alfred
Marrow’s book)
BH = f (P+E)
FOREIGN HULL
VECTORS
VALENCES
PERSON
B
A
R
R
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E
R
NEEDS
ABILITIES
PSYCHOLOGICAL LIFE SPACE
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G
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Concept Map:
Chapter Eight Overview
The Cognitive InformationProcessing Approach
THE COGNITIVE
INFORMATIONPROCESSING
APPROACH
Exploring the
InformationProcessing
Approach
Characteristics of the
Information-Processing
Approach
The Cognitive InformationProcessing Approach
• Exploring the informationprocessing approach
– Cognitive psychology
The Cognitive InformationProcessing Approach
• Characteristics of the informationprocessing approach
– Thinking
– Change mechanisms
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Encoding
Automaticity
Strategy construction
Transfer
– Self-modification
– Metacognition
Memory
MEMORY
What is
Memory?
Retrieval and
Forgetting
Encoding
Storage
Memory
• What is memory?
ENCODING
Getting
information
into memory
STORAGE
Retaining
information
over time
RETRIEVAL
Taking
information
out of storage
Memory
• Encoding
– Rehearsal
– Deep processing
• Levels of processing theory
– Elaboration
– Constructing images
– Organization
• Chunking
Memory
• Storage
– Memory’s time frames
• Sensory memory
• Short-term (working) memory
– Memory span
• Long-term memory
Key Ideas in Information Processing Theory
I
Sensation and Perception
II Attention
A. Distractibility decreases; sustained attention increases
B. Attention becomes increasingly purposeful
III Working Memory
A. Processing speed increases
B. Children acquire more effective cognitive processes
C. The physical capacity of working memory
may increase somewhat
IV Long-Term Memory
A. The amount of knowledge stored in long-term
memory increases
B. Knowledge becomes increasingly symbolic in nature
C. Children’s knowledge about the world
becomes increasingly integrated
D. Children’s growing knowledge base facilitates
more effective learning
Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education
Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
5-1: A model of the human information processing system (Figure 5-1)
Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education
Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s
Theory of Memory
Baddeley’s Model of
Memory
Visuospatial
scratchpad
Central
executive
Articulatory
loop
Storage: Long-Term
Memory’s Contents
Long-term memory
Nondeclarative
(implicit)
Declarative
(explicit)
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Memory
• Storage
– Content knowledge and how it is
represented in long-term memory
• Content knowledge
• Network theories
• Schema theories
– Schema
– Script
Memory
• Retrieval and forgetting
– Retrieval
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Serial position effect
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Encoding specificity principle
Recall
Recognition
Memory
• Retrieval and forgetting
– Forgetting
• Cue-dependent forgetting
• Interference theory
• Decay theory
FOREIGN HULL
VECTORS
VALENCES
PERSON
B
A
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R
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E
R
NEEDS
ABILITIES
PSYCHOLOGICAL LIFE SPACE
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G
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G
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Abraham Maslow’s
• Perspectives on motivation
– The humanist perspective
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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Physiological
Safety
Love and belongingness
Esteem
Self-actualization