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1 2 3 • YOU WILL NEED A NOTEBOOK THAT WILL BE FOR SCIENCE ONLY • In your new notebook you will keep all your notes, worksheets so forth. • You will date each day’s work and use the same sheet of paper for all that days work. 4 • In your new notebook you will keep all your notes, worksheets so forth. • Notes will be checked and worksheets will be checked. • You will date each day’s work and use the same sheet of paper for all that days work. • Your notebook will be a notebook grade which will be worth 30% of your grade. • Failure to keep up with your notes will hurt your grade. 5 • Notes and worksheets will be checked. • Your notebook will be a notebook grade which will be worth 30% of your grade. • Failure to keep up with your notes will hurt your grade 6 The World of Earth Science • Section 1: Branches of Earth Science • Section 2: Scientific Methods in Earth Science • Section 3: Scientific Models • Section 4: Measurement and Safety 7 WHILE YOU READ ANSWER.. • What are the four major branches of Earth science? • What are some special branches of Earth science? • What are the steps used in scientific methods? • How is a hypothesis tested? • Why do scientists share their findings with others? • How do scientists use models? • What are three kinds of scientific models? • What is the SI? • How do scientists measure length, area, mass, volume, and temperature? 8 9 STANDARDS • S6CS1.a Understand the importance of—and keep—honest, clear, and • accurate records in science. • S6CS1.b Understand that hypotheses are valuable if they lead to fruitful • investigations, even if the hypotheses turn out not to be completely accurate • descriptions. • S6CS3.d Draw conclusions based on analyzed data. • S6CS5.b Identify several different models (such as physical replicas, • pictures, and analogies) that could be used to represent the same thing, and • evaluate their usefulness, taking into account such things as the model’s • purpose and complexity. 10 STANDARDS • • • • • • • • • • • • S6CS7.b Recognize that there may be more than one way to interpret a given set of findings. S6CS8.c As prevailing theories are challenged by new information, scientific knowledge may change and grow S6CS9.a Scientific investigations are conducted for different reasons. They usually involve collecting evidence, reasoning, devising hypotheses, and formulating explanations. S6CS9.c Accurate record keeping, data sharing, and replication of results are essential for maintaining an investigator’s credibility with other scientists and society. S6CS9.d Scientists use technology and mathematics to enhance the process of scientific inquiry. 11 12 13 In your notebook dated today: 1. Read the following scenes 2. Number and copy the highlighted data 3. Then write what kind of Earth scientist is described in each scene. Be as specific as possible. 14 Scene 1 In the desert of New Mexico, a woman studies the stars every night and records her observations. She notices a speck of light in the “Square Constellation” that she has never noticed before. 15 Scene 2 A university professor is at Point Reyes National Seashore in California. He is measuring the depth of the tidal pools. As the day passes, the tidal pools get deeper. 16 Scene 3 It is winter in Kalamazoo, Michigan. A reporter on TV is pointing to a satellite weather map. He predicts snow flurries across southern Michigan for the next two days. 17 Scene 4 It is a cloudy day in the state of Washington. An experienced scientist is observing Lava Canyon on the volcano, Mount St. Helens. She notices that all the trees on the canyon floor are missing limbs near their bases. 18 Match the branch of science with its description. 19 1. The study of the universe 2. A scientist who studies fossils 3. The study of the surface features of the Earth 4. The study of the Earth’s atmosphere in relation to weather and climate 5. The study of the sea 6. The study of how humans interact with the environment 7. A scientist who studies earthquakes 8. A branch of Earth science that combines the studies of geology and chemistry 9. The study of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth 20 1. The study of the universe 2. A scientist who studies fossils Astronomy Paleontologist 3. The study of the surface features of the Earth physical geography 4. The study of the Earth’s atmosphere in relation to weather and climate Meteorology 5. The study of the sea Oceanography 6. The study of how humans interact with the environment environmental science 7. A scientist who studies earthquakes Seismologist 8. A branch of Earth science that combines the studies of geology and chemistry Geochemistry 9. The study of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth Geology 21 22 Write the question and the answer for each of the following 23 1. A possible explanation or answer to a question is a a. b. c. d. fact. law. synopsis. hypothesis 2. A series of steps scientists follow to solve problems are a. b. c. d. scientific methods. experiment guidelines. investigation methods. standard procedures. 24 3. Scientists may do a controlled experiment to a. ask a question. b. test a hypothesis. c. communicate results. d. simplify data. 4. Scientists begin to learn about the natural world by a. summarizing research. b. accepting investigation results. c. forming expectations. d. asking questions. 25 5. Communicating the results of an investigation allows other scientists to a. b. c. d. prove evidence. change results focus an investigation. review evidence. 6. After analyzing results of their tests, scientists a. measure their evidence. b. immediately begin new investigations. c. form a new hypothesis. d. draw conclusions. 26 7. An investigation may continue after results are accepted if there is a. b. c. d. new evidence. outdated evidence. a repeated question. a closed case. 8. What order do the steps of a scientific method follow? a. alphabetical order b. chronological order c. numerical order d. They do not follow a set order. 27 9. A controlled experiment tests a. many variables at once. b. one variable at a time. c. complex data. d. conflicting data. 10. Scientists form a hypothesis when they a. prove a theory. b. analyze data. c. investigate a question. d. change data 28 1. a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to help us understand the natural world 2. a model made up of a system of ideas 3. a model that can be touched and looks and acts like the real thing 4. a model made up of mathematical equations and data 5. an explanation that ties together many hypotheses and observations a. physical model b. theory c. mathematical model d. model e. conceptual model 29 6. Which of the following is NOT a way that models can be used in science? a. to replace real things in the natural world b. to explain or analyze something in detail c. to help explain theories d. to help us understand the natural world 7. What model is used to show objects that are too small or too large to see completely? a. b. c. d. a physical model a mathematical model a conceptual modeld a climate model 30 8. A climate model is an example of a a. physical model. b. mathematical model. c. conceptual model. d. global model. 9. The data in a climate model has a. a large margin of error. b. a small margin of error c. few variables. d. many variables. 31 10. To learn from a model, a scientist must a. b. c. measure the model. choose the right model. visualize the model. d. take apart the model. 32 33 34 1. the distance north or south from the equator 2. a representation of the earth’s surface 3. north, south, east, and west 4. the line of longitude used as the origin in a system of coordinates 5. the distance east and west from the prime meridian 6. the direction to the geographic North Pole 7. a fixed place from which direction and location can be described a. prime meridian b. true north c. latitude d. longitude e. map f. reference point g. cardinal directions 35 8. Which of the following places would NOT be useful as a reference point? a. b. c. d. 123 Elm Street Boise, Idaho the mountains Johnny’s Country Store 9. What is magnetic declination? a. the distance from the equator b. the difference between the magnetic north and the true north c. the same as 90º latitude d. when the needle of a compass points north 36 10. The prime meridian runs through which city? a. b. c. d. Greenwich, England New York City, NY New Delhi, India Rome, Italy 11. Which of the following is a good example of a cylindrical projection? a. a globe b. c. d. a Mercator projection an equal-area map a compass rose 37 1. a method that sends energy waves from a satellite to observe the Earth’s surface 2. a system of orbiting satellites used to pinpoint a location on Earth 3. a map made by moving the surface features of the globe onto a plane 4. a way to collect information about a place without being there 5. shows where true north is on a map 6. a map made by moving the surface azimuthal projection features of the globe onto a cone a. b. radar c. conic projection d. compass rose e. remote sensing f. GPS 38 7. Which of the following methods would be the best to use to map areas near the equator? a. cylindrical projection b. azimuthal projection c. distortion d. conic projection 8. Which of the following is NOT a method of remote sensing? a. determining your distance from Chicago using GPS b. measuring the depth of the ocean by using sound waves from a ship c. measuring the length of a trail by hiking on it d. using a satellite to photograph a city 9. Which area of land would be the most distorted on a flat map? a. a town b. a continent c. a small island d. a city park 39 40 41 15x26 1. How long is the perimeter of the picnic area? 2. What is the total area of the picnic area? 3. How much area in the part has grass? 4. Estimate the area covered by the fountain not including the rectangular pool 42 43 The Burnside family vegetable garden measures 4 m 3.5 m. A garden planning guide suggests mixing fertilizer with the soil to a depth of 25 cm. In cubic meters, what will be the total volume of fertilizer-soil mix in the garden? 44 Lock B, which is the same width as Lock A, is 1.5 times as long and has a volume of 4488 m3. How deep is 45 Lock B? Estimate the area covered by the fountain, not including the rectangular pool. Area of fountain total area of the pool visible area of the pool 54 m2 - 32 m2 about 20 m2 46 47 1. shows the surface features of the Earth 2. the height of an object above sea level 3. the difference in elevation between contour lines 4. variations in elevation of a land surface 5. a darker contour line, usually every fifth line 6. a summary of the symbols used on a map a. relief b. legend c. elevation d. topographic map e. contour interval f. index contour 48 Chapter 3: Minerals of the Earth’s Crust • Section 1: What Is a Mineral? • Section 2: Identifying Minerals • Section 3: The Formation, Mining, and Use of Minerals 49 50 51 • What are minerals? • What determines the shape of a mineral? • What are two main groups of minerals? • What seven properties can be used to identify a mineral? • What are some special properties of minerals? • How do minerals form? • How are mineral resources used? 52 53 a.silicate mineral b. Crystal c. Element d. Compound e. nonsilicate mineral f. mineral 54 1. a solid whose atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a definite pattern 2. a mineral that does not contain compounds of silicon and oxygen 3. a mineral that contains a combination of silicon, oxygen, and other elements 55 4. a substance that cannot be separated or broken down into simpler substances by chemical means 5. a naturally formed, inorganic solid that has a definite crystalline structure 6. a substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds 56 Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a mineral? a. It is formed in nature. b. It is a living material. c. It has a crystalline structure. d. It is a solid. 57 1. the appearance of a mineral that can vary according to the impurities in that mineral as well as other factors 2. the splitting of a mineral along smooth, flat surfaces 3. the ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume of the substance 4. a measure of the ability of a mineral to resist scratching 5. characteristics that are particular to only a few types of minerals 6. the color of the powder of a mineral 7. the way in which a mineral reflects light 8. the breaking of a mineral along either curved or irregular surfaces 58 1. solid mixture of one or more minerals and organic matter 2. process by which new rock forms from old rock 3. process by which sediment is removed from its source 4. process by which sediment is dropped and comes to rest 5. the chemical makeup of a rock 6. size, shape, and position of grains that make up a rock a. composition b. rock c. erosion d. texture e. rock cycle f. deposition 59 7. Which of the following rocks is not normally used as a construction material? a. marble b. halite c. limestone d. granite 8. The process in which water, wind, ice, and heat break down rock is called a. uplift. b. intrusion. c. recrystallization. d. weathering. 9. What forms when rock partially or completely melts? a. limestone b. reefs c. ripple marks d. magma 10. Scientists classify rocks a. by composition and texture. b. by volume. c. by mass. d. by color and size. 60 61 Dear Doug, Well I’ve finally decided to open a jewelry store! As you know, I’ve always been interested in precious stones and gems. I recently learned that many rare gems, such as rubies, are created in a laboratory environment. In fact, these synthetic gems are created by duplicating the effects of nature, but at a much faster rate. Artificial gems are usually not as valuable as naturally occurring gems, but they aren’t considered fakes either. Before I start selling synthetic gems, I’d like to know more about the formation of natural and synthetic rocks. Because you are a certified gemologist, I thought you could help by answering the attached questions. Rob Dobbs 62 1. Most gemstones are metamorphic minerals. What conditions would the laboratory need to duplicate to create synthetic gems? 2. Metamorphic rocks are formed at various depths in the Earth. Why would the depth at which a rock forms determine its type? 3. Explain why metamorphic rock will form neither synthetically nor naturally if the temperature is too high. 4. Explain how a diamond in a jewelry store could contain the carbon from a prehistoric animal. 63 It can be distinguished by its layers It comes in three main categories, clastic, chemical, and organic. Its origin is usually layers of Sediment What is it? It is a result of change in the structure, texture, or composition of a rock. It comes in two textures, foliated and nonfoliated. Its origin is intense heat and pressure. What is it? 64 What kind of rocks form when magma cools beneath the Earth’s surface? clastic,chemical, or organic __________rocks form the remains of organisms. __________rocks form when rock or mineral fragments stick together. __________rocks form from solutions of minerals and water What kind of rocks form when Magma cools on the Earth’s surface? foliated or nonfoliated. In rock,__________ the mineral grains are aligned, but in __________rock, they are not aligned. 65 SUBSURFACE MINING 66 67 68 Chapter 4: Rocks: Mineral Mixtures • • • • Section 1: The Rock Cycle Section 2: Igneous Rock Section 3: Sedimentary Rock Section 4: Metamorphic Rock 69 70 WHILE YOU READ ANSWER.. • What is a rock? • How are rocks classified? • What does the texture of a rock reveal about how it was formed? • How do igneous rocks form? • What factors affect the texture of igneous rock? • How do sedimentary rocks form? • How do geologists classify sedimentary rocks? • What are some sedimentary structures? • How do metamorphic rocks form? • How do geologists classify metamorphic rocks? • • What are fossils? • • How do fossils form? • • What can fossils tell us about the history of life on Earth? 71 STANDARDS • S6E5.b Investigate the composition of rocks in terms of minerals. • S6E5.c Describe processes that change rocks and the surface of Earth. 72 Find two paths through the rock cycle that lead from sedimentary rock to igneous rock. Use a colored pen or marker to trace both paths on the fi gure. 73 INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS 74 strata layers of rock (singular, stratum) stratification the process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers foliated describes the texture of metamorphic rock in which the mineral grains are arranged in planes or bands nonfoliated describes the texture of metamorphic rock in which the mineral grains are not arranged in planes or bands 75 geologic column an ordered arrangement of rock layers that is based on the relative ages of the rocks and in which the oldest rocks are at the bottom relative dating any method of determining whether an event or object is older or younger than other events or objects superposition a principle that states that younger rocks lie above older rocks if the layers have not been disturbed unconformity a break in the geologic record created when rock layers are eroded or when sediment is not deposited for a long period of time 76 77 Chapter 6: The Rock and Fossil Record • Section 1: Earth’s Story and Those Who First Listened • Section 2: Relative Dating: Which Came First? • Section 3: Absolute Dating: A Measure of Time • Section 4: Looking at Fossils • Section 5: Time Marches On 78 WHILE YOU READ ANSWER.. • • • • • • • • • • How fast do changes on Earth happen? • What is paleontology? • What is relative dating? • How can rock layers be disturbed? • How can geologists learn the exact age of a rock? • What is radiometric dating? • How do geologists measure time? • How has life changed during Earth’s history? • What can cause a mass extinction? 79 STANDARDS • S6E5.f Describe how fossils show evidence of the changing surface and • climate of Earth. 80 81 82 catastrophism a principle that states that geologic change occurs suddenly paleontology the scientific study of fossils uniformitarianism a principle that geologic processes that occurred in the past can be explained by current geologic processes absolute dating any method of measuring the age of an event or object in years half-life the time required for half of a sample of a radioactive isotope to break down by radioactive decay to form a daughter isotope 83 isotope an atom that has the same number of protons (or the same atomic number) as other atoms of the same element do but that has a different number of neutrons (and thus a different atomic mass) radioactive decay the process in which a radioactive isotope tends to break down into a stable isotope of the same element or another Element radiometric dating a method of determining the absolute age of an object by comparing the relative percentages of a radioactive (parent) isotope and a stable (daughter) isotope 84 cast a type of fossil that forms when sediments fill in the cavity left by a decomposed organism fossil the trace or remains of an organism that lived long ago, most commonly preserved in sedimentary rock index fossil a fossil that is used to establish the age of a rock layer because the fossil is distinct, abundant, and widespread and the species that formed that fossil existed for only a short span of geologic time mold a mark or cavity made in a sedimentary surface by a shell or other body trace fossil a fossilized mark that formed in sedimentary rock by the movement of an animal on or within soft sediment 85 eon the largest division of geologic time epoch a subdivision of geologic time that is longer than an age but shorter than a period era a unit of geologic time that includes two or more periods extinction the death of every member of a Species geologic time scale the standard method used to divide the Earth’s long natural history into manageable parts period a unit of geologic time that is longer than an epoch but shorter than an era 86 “The Present Is the Key to the Past.” This phrase was the cornerstone of the uniformitarianist theory developed by geologist James Hutton in the late 1700s. Write a few sentences in your science otebook about how studying the present could reveal the story of Earth’s history. Use sketches to illustrate processes that occurred millions of years ago that you can still see today. 87 Arrange the following sentences in a logical order to make a short story: •I stood in the checkout line. •I selected two apples. •I walked home from the store. •I gave the cashier money. •I went to the store. •The cashier gave me change. •I was hungry. Write your story in your science notebook. 88 1. the idea that geologic processes occurring now are the same as those in the past 2. a scientist who published Principles of Geology from 1830–1833 3. the idea that geologic change happens suddenly 4. a scientist who outlined uniformitarianism in 1788 5. a science that combines uniformitarianism and catastrophism a. uniformitarianism 6. the study of past life using fossil b. catastrophism c. paleontology d. James Hutton e. Charles Lyell f. modern geology 89 7. According to uniformitarianism, how does geologic change happen? a. b. c. d. every few years suddenly gradually after an earthquake 8. Which of the following events would be a catastrophe? a. b. c. d. an average rainfall an asteroid hitting the earth gradual erosion deposition 90 9. What kind of scientist studies the history of plants and animals? a. b. c. d. a paleontologist a botanist a geologist a chemist 10. What does a paleobotanist study? a. b. c. d. vertebrate animals invertebrate animals fossilized insects fossil plants 91 The idea of _________says that rock layers at the bottom of a body of rock are older than layers at the top. Geologists can use this idea to determine the relative age of different rock layers 92 93 94 HALF LIFE 95 96 97 The fossil on the left is the internal mold of an ammonite. It formed when sediment filled the ammonite’s MOLD OR CAST? WHICH IS WHICH? shell. On the right is the external mold of the ammonite. The shell later dissolved. 98 99 1. process in which minerals replace tissues 2. trace or remains of an organism that lived long ago, most commonly preserved in sedimentary rock 3. mark or cavity made in a sedimentary surface by a shell or other body 4. fossil from a specific time period 5. fossil formed by an animal’s movement 6. mold filled with sediment a. fossil b. mineral replacement c. trace fossil d. mold e. cast f. index fossil 100 7. What is amber? a. a hard shell b. hardened tree sap c. an insect’s body d. wet, sticky tree sap 8. Which of the following is an example of mineral replacement? a. La Brea asphalt b. a frozen mammoth c. hardened tree sap d. petrified wood 101 9. Which of the following is an example of a trace fossil? a. preserved footprints b. mold and cast c. hardened tree sap d. a frozen mammoth 10.Which kind of temperatures will slow down an organism’s decay? a. warm temperatures in a wet climate b. cool temperatures c. freezing temperatures d. hot temperatures 102 Do these statements describe relative or absolute age? 1. She is my younger sister. 2. He is 12 years old. Why do geologists use both absolute and relative dating to interpret the past? Why are both absolute and relative dating valid methods for geologists and other earth scientists to use? 103 1. largest division of geologic time 2. unit of geologic time that includes two or more periods 3. third-largest division of geologic time 4. fourth-largest division of geologic time 5. death of a species 6. standard method that divides Earth’s a. period history into parts b. eon c. geologic time scale d. extinction e. era 104 f. epoch 7. Which era ended with the largest mass extinction in Earth’s history? a. Paleozoic b. Mesozoic c. Cenozoic d. Jurassic 8. During which era did birds and small mammals begin to evolve? a. Paleozoic b. Mesozoic c. Cenozoic d. Jurassic 105 9. Which era are we in now? a. Paleozoic b. Mesozoic c. Cenozoic d. Jurassic 10. What does the rock and fossil record represent? a. index fossils b. geologic time c. the Age of Reptiles d. the Age of Mammals 106 Chapter 7: Plate Tectonics • • • • Section 1: Inside the Earth Section 2: Restless Continents Section 3: The Theory of Plate Tectonics Section 4: Deforming the Earth’s Crust 107 STANDARDS • S6E5.a Compare and contrast Earth’s crust, mantle, and core including temperature, density, and composition. • S6E5.c Describe processes that change rocks and the surface of Earth. • S6E5.d Recognize that lithospheric plates constantly move and cause major geological events on Earth’s surface. • S6E5.e Explain the effects of physical processes (plate tectonics, erosion, • deposition, volcanic eruption, gravity) on geological features including oceans • (composition, currents, and tides). 108 WHILE YOU READ ANSWER.. • What are the layers inside Earth? • How do scientists study Earth’s interior? • What is continental drift? • How are magnetic reversals related to sea-floor spreading? • What happens when rock is placed under stress? • What are three kinds of faults? • How do mountains form? 109 110 WHAT AM I? I am part of the lithosphere, but I move around on top of the asthenosphere. I am a(n) ______________________. WHERE ARE WE? We journeyed to the center of the Earth, and when we got there we discovered that the core has two parts One part is liquid and is called the ______________________ The other part is dense and solid and is called the ______________________ 111 asthenosphere the soft layer of the mantle on which the tectonic plates move core the central part of the Earth below the Mantle crust the thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth above the mantle lithosphere the solid, outer layer of Earth that consists of the crust and the rigid upper part of the mantle mantle the layer of rock between the Earth’s crust and core mesosphere the strong, lower part of the mantle between the asthenosphere and the outer core tectonic plates a block of lithosphere that consists of the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the mantle 112 continental drift the hypothesis that states that the continents once formed a single landmass, broke up, and drifted to their present locations sea-floor spreading the process by which new oceanic lithosphere (sea floor) forms as magma rises to Earth’s surface and solidifies at a mid-ocean ridge convergent boundary the boundary between tectonic plates that are colliding divergent boundary the boundary between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other plate tectonics the theory that explains how large pieces of the Earth’s outermost layer, called tectonic plates, move and change shape transform boundary the boundary between tectonic plates that are sliding past each other horizontally 113 What fraction of the thickness of the thickest continental crust is the thickness of the oceanic crust? Give your answer as a reduced fraction. 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 1. the layer of rock that comprises 67% of Earth’s mass 2. the layer of Earth made mostly of iron 3. the thin, solid outermost layer above the mantle 4. the rigid layer made up of crust and upper mantle 5. the layer made of solid rock that slowly flows 6. the lower part of the mantle a. asthenosphere b. core c. crust d. mantle e. lithosphere f. mesosphere 127 1. hypothesis that states that the continents were once one large mass that broke apart 2. process that takes place at mid-ocean ridges 3. part of molten rock at mid-ocean ridges 4. process of Earth’s magnetic poles changing places 5. items that provide evidence that the continents were once closer together a. sea-floor spreading b. continental drift c. magnetic reversal d. magnetic minerals e. fossils 128 What are they? What kinds? 129 A super-fast chess computer can perform 200,000,000 calculations per second. How many calculations can it perform in the 3 minutes it is allowed for each move? 3 minutes 60 seconds/minute 180 seconds; 200,000,000 calculations/second 180 seconds 36 → 36,000,000,000 calculations 130 1. where two plates collide 2. where two plates are moving away from each other 3. where two plates are moving horizontally past each other 4. process of moving layers of rock by heating and cooling 5. where denser oceanic lithosphere sinks beneath continental lithosphere 6. where oceanic lithosphere slides downhill due a. divergent boundary to gravity b. slab pull c. convection d. convergent boundary e. transform boundary f. ridge push 131 1. stress at a divergent plate boundary 2. stress at a convergent plate boundary 3. upward-arching rock layer 4. downward-arching rock layer 5. hanging wall moves down relative to footwall 6. hanging wall moves up relative to a. uplift footwall b. subsidence c. tension 7. sinking of rock layers d. compression e. normal fault f. anticline 8. rising of rock layers g. syncline h. reverse fault 132 1. the sudden return of elastically deformed rock to its undeformed shape 2. seismic waves that cause particles of rock to move in a side-to-side direction 3. seismic waves that cause particles of rock to move in a back-and-forth motion 4. waves of energy that travel through Earth away from an earthquake in all directions 5. the bending, tilting, and breaking of Earth’s crust; the change in the shape of rock in response to stress 6. the branch of Earth science devoted to a. seismology studying earthquakes b. deformation c. elastic rebound d. seismic waves e. P waves 133 f. S waves In a given year, how many earthquakes measure 6.0 or greater? In a given year, what percentage of earthquakes measure 3.0 or greater are moderate? Calculate the percentage of earthquakes that measure 5.0 or greater that are classified as “major” and “great.” 134 The Richter scale is based on a mathematical system. Each whole-number increase in magnitude on the Richter scale represents an increase in measured amplitude by a factor of 10. That means that an earthquake measuring 4.0 on the Richter scale is 10 times as strong as an earthquake measuring 3.0. The Richter scale is also used to estimate the relative energy released by earthquakes. Each whole-number increase on the Richter scale represents an increase in energy release by a 135 factor of 32. On December 16, 1920, an earthquake measuring 8.6 on the Richter scale hit Gansu, a province in China. Twelve years later, an earthquake measuring 7.6 hit Gansu. How much stronger was the 1920 earthquake? How much more energy did the 1920 earthquake release compared with the second earthquake? 136 In 1906, an earthquake occurred in San Francisco that measured 8.3 on the Richter scale. In 1994, an earthquake occurred in Northridge, California, that measured 6.7 on the Richter scale. 1. How much stronger was the San Francisco earthquake? 2. How much more energy did the San Francisco earthquake release? 137 138 1. instrument that records vibrations in the ground and determines the location and strength of an earthquake 2. tracing of earthquake motion that is created by a seismograph 3. scale used to measure earthquake damage 4. point along a fault at which the first motion of an earthquake occurs 5. point on Earth’s surface directly above an earthquake’s starting point 6. scale used to measure earthquake strength a. seismogram b. epicenter c. focus d. seismograph 139 e. Richter magnitude scale f. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale 1. measurement of how likely an area is to have damaging earthquakes 2. hypothesis based on the idea that a major earthquake is more likely to occur along the part of an active fault where no earthquakes have occurred for a certain period of time 3. area along a fault where relatively few earthquakes have occurred recently but where strong earthquakes have occurred in the past 4. process of making older structures more earthquake resistant 5. something that helps keep water and gas lines from breaking in an earthquake 6. something that acts as a shock absorber for a building during an earthquake 7. a weight located at the bottom of a building to help offset building movement 8. a weight placed in the roof of a building to counteract building movement a. seismic gap b. mass damper c. earthquake hazard d. flexible pipe e. gap hypothesis f. base isolator g. active tendon system h. retrofitting 140 Chapter 8: Earthquakes • Section 1: What Are Earthquakes? • Section 2: Earthquake Measurement • Section 3: Earthquakes and Society 141 STANDARDS • S6E5.c Describe processes that change rocks and the surface of Earth. • S6E5.d Recognize that lithospheric plates constantly move and cause major • geological events on Earth’s surface. • S6E5.e Explain the effects of physical processes (plate tectonics, erosion, • deposition, volcanic eruption, gravity) on geological features including oceans • (composition, currents, and tides). 142 143 WHILE YOU READ ANSWER.. • • Where do most earthquakes happen? • • What makes an earthquake happen? • • What are seismic waves? 144 deformation the bending, tilting, and breaking of the Earth’s crust; the change in the shape of rock in response to stress elastic rebound the sudden return of elastically deformed rock to its undeformed shape P wave a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a back-and-forth direction S wave a seismic wave that causes particles of rock to move in a side-to-side direction seismic wave a wave of energy that travels through the Earth, away from an earthquake in all directions seismology the study of earthquakes 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 epicenter the point on Earth’s surface directly above an earthquake’s starting point, or focus focus the point along a fault at which the first motion of an earthquake occurs seismogram a tracing of earthquake motion that is created by a seismograph seismograph an instrument that records vibrations in the ground and determines the location and strength of an earthquake 158 1. molten rock underground 2. magma that flows on the Earth’s surface 3. dust-sized particles of hardened lava 4. magma that is blasted into the air and hardens 5. vent on Earth’s surface through which magma and gases are expelled 6. a crack or opening in the Earth’s crust a. volcano b. lava c. magma d. vent e. ash f. Pyroclastic material 159 • Draw each volcano type and label it with the type of volcano it is. • Fill in the information about volcanoes from the slide that is coming…… 160 Volcano information 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What type of volcano? What’s this? What’s this? 161 What type of volcano? Volcano information 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What’s this? What’s this? 162 What type of volcano? Volcano information 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What’s this? 163 Volcano information 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What type of volcano? Shield volcano has sides that slope gently forms from repeated nonexplosive eruptions is made entirely of runny lava 164 What type of volcano? Volcano information 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cinder cone volcano consists entirely of pyroclastic materialis Often found in clusters erodes very quickly 165 What type of volcano? Volcano information 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. composite volcano is also known as a stratovolcano has a broad base and steep sides toward the top is formed by explosive eruptions that are followed by lava outpourings 166 A Variety of Volcanoes There are three main types of volcanoes— shield, cinder cone, and composite. Determine which type of volcano is being described by the phrases at left, and copy each phrase with the appropriate picture 167 • is also known as a stratovolcano • consists entirely of pyroclastic material • has sides that slope gently • is often found in clusters • has a broad base and steep sides toward the top • forms from repeated nonexplosive eruptions • is made entirely of runny lava • erodes very quickly • is formed by explosive eruptions that are followed by lava outpourings 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 1. the grinding and wearing away of rock surfaces through the mechanical action of other rock or sand particles 2. rain, sleet, or snow that contains a high concentration of acids 3. the process by which rocks break down as a result of chemical reactions 4. the breakdown of rock into smaller pieces by physical means 5. a chemical reaction in which an element, such as iron, combines with oxygen to form an oxide 6. the process by which rock materials are broken down by the action of physical or chemical processes a. mechanical weathering b. oxidation c. weathering d. acid precipitation e. abrasion f. chemical weathering 175 The autobiography of Grant Stone, the first rock to learn to talk, has just been published. Grant has had a really interesting life! Below are some excerpts from Grant’s autobiography. After you read each excerpt, decide if Grant is telling a story about mechanical or chemical weathering, and circle the appropriate word. Then in the space provided, identify the cause of weathering: abrasion, acids in living things, acid precipitation, ice wedging, or oxidation. Be careful; one term will be used twice. 176 1. In my youth, I was part of a much larger rock on the side of a mountain. In the summer, small trickles of water would enter cracks in my surface; in the winter, the water would freeze. The cracks grew larger, until I eventually broke off the granite outcropping. chemical or mechanical? 2. As I fell off the mountain, I caused a rock slide. There were hundreds of rocks, large and small, rolling down the mountain. We were bumping into each other and sliding all over. It was a regular rock stampede! chemical or mechanical? 177 3. I stopped at the base of the mountain, on top of the pile of rocks. I spent many years there, and gradually, a colony of lichen began to grow on my side. They were easy to live with, but where the lichen grew, my edges became less sharp. chemical or mechanical? 4. In one of my journeys, I met some rocks that were a beautiful red color. They told me they were made with a lot of iron, and the iron helped to cause their red coloration. chemical or mechanical? 178 5. It’s winter, the mountain had a much larger snowfall than usual, and the spring was stormy, with lots of rain. The rain and the snowmelt caused a flood, and I found myself in the bottom of a river, being jostled among more rocks and rubbed by silt. chemical or mechanical? 6. Over time, that river changed course, and I was left in the open. In recent decades, I’ve started to crumble a little at the edges. I’m not sure what causes it, but I think it has something to do with the rain—the rain seems to do much more damage to me that it used to. chemical or mechanical? 179 180 1. A process by which softer, less weather-resistant rocks wear away and leave harder, more weather-resistant rocks behind is called a. differential weathering. b. mechanical weathering. c. chemical weathering. d. ice wedging. 2. Small rocks weather more quickly than large rocks because their surface area is a. thinner. b. larger. c. smaller. d. thicker. 3. The average weather condition in an area over a long period of time is called a. temperature. b. climate. c. weather. d. humidity. 4. Chemical weathering is most rapid in areas that are a. hot and dry. b. warm and wet. c. cold and dry. d. cool and wet. 5. Which rocks are exposed to more wind, rain, and ice? a. rocks at a lower elevation b. rocks at a higher elevation c. rocks in streams d. rocks in a warm, humid climate 181 182 1. a loose mixture of small mineral fragments, organic material, water, and air that can support the growth of vegetation 2. the layer of rock beneath the soil 3. soil that is blown or washed away from its parent rock 4. the source of mineral fragments in the soil a. Transported soil b. bedrock c. soil d. parent rock 183 Buying the Farm Fed up with frantic New York City life, James Robert McCoy (a.k.a. Jim Bob) has decided to buy a farm and move to the country. However, he doesn’t know anything about soils. Help Jim Bob sort through these classified ads: 1. Because the soil at Corn Hollow has supported nothing but corn for five years, it should be perfectly suited for growing more corn. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain your reasoning. 2. What can farmers do to ensure a good balance of soil nutrients year after year? 184 Farm for Sale: Corn Hollow Located just outside Lincoln, Nebraska, this farm is a charmer. Nothing but corn has been planted here over the last five years, so the land is ready for more of it! Corn Hollow has been plowed and empty for over a year, just waiting for you to bring her back to life. A perfect choice for the inexperienced farmer! Great Opportunity: Stony Meadow Farms This is a farm waiting to happen! Special reduced price! At first glance, Stony Meadow may seem like a huge block of stone, but it’s really a farm-tobe! The solid granite foundation will weather away and turn into fertile soil in no time. Plus, there are no pesky weeds or bugs to annoy you! Act fast on this one! 185 Desert Dreamland: Sandy Acres Sandy Acres can be yours today! At a fraction of the cost of “prime” farmland, you can buy into the biggest secret in agriculture. The fields of Sandy Acres, in the Arizona desert, have never been farmed! Just think of all the nutrients waiting to be tapped! Plenty of sunshine, too! All this soil needs is water. Call today! 186 1. Because the soil at Corn Hollow has supported nothing but corn for five years, it should be perfectly suited for growing more corn. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain your reasoning. 2. What can farmers do to ensure a good balance of soil nutrients year after year? 3. Corn Hollow’s fields have been empty for over a year. What soil problems might this cause? 4. What are the chances that Jim Bob would be able to farm on Stony Meadow Farms within a year? Explain. 5. What characteristics of desert soil should Jim Bob be aware of? Explain. 6. Which farm would you recommend to Jim Bob? Explain. 187