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C. James Goodwin A history of modern psychology CONTENTS KEY DATE BOXES-DATE SUMMARY PREFACE xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv CHAPTER 1 HISTORY 1 ix INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY'S Psychology and Its History 2 Why Study History? 4 Why Study Psychology's History? 7 Key Issues in Psychology's History 8 Old Versus New History 9 Presentism Versus Historicism 9 Internal Versus External History 11 Personalistic Versus Naturalistic History Close-Up: Edwin G. Boring (1886-1968) 14 This Book's Point of View 16 Historiography: Doing and Writing History 17 Sources of Historical Data 18 Problems with the Writing of History 20 Data Selection Problems 20 Interpretation Problems 22 Approaching Historical Truth 24 CHAPTER 2 David Hume (1711-1776): The Rules of Association 46 David Hartley (1705-1757): A Physiological Associationism 48 Close-Up: Raising a Philosopher 50 John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): On the Verge of Psychological Science 51 Mill's Psychology 52 Mill's Logic 54 Rationalist Responses to Empiricism 55 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) 56 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) 57 In Perspective: Philosophical Foundations 58 THE PHILOSOPHICAL CONTEXT 13 CHAPTER 3 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTEXT: EARLY RESEARCH ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 28 A Long Past 29 Descartes: The Beginnings of Modern Philosophy and Science 30 Descartes and the Rationalist Argument 31 The Cartesian System: Rationalism, Nativism, and Mechanistic Interactionism 33 Descartes on the Reflex and Mind-Body Interaction 34 The British Empiricist Argument and the Associationists 37 John Locke (1632-1704): The Origins of British Empiricism 38 Locke on Human Understanding 38 Locke on Education 42 George Berkeley (1685-1753): Empiricism Applied to Vision 43 British Associationism 46 62 Heroic Science in the Age of Enlightenment 63 Functioning of the Nervous System 64 Reflex Action 65 The Bell-Magendie Law 66 The Specific Energies of Nerves 68 Helmholtz: The Physiologist's Physiologist 69 Measuring the Speed of Neural Impulses 70 Helmholtz on Vision and Audition 71 Helmholtz and the Problem of Perception 73 Localization of Brain Function 75 The Phrenology of Gall and Spurzheim 75 Close-Up: The Marketing of Phrenology 79 Flourens and the Method of Ablation 81 The Clinical Method 82 The Remarkable Phineas Gage 82 Broca Discovers the Speech Center 83 Mapping the Brain: Electrical Stimulation 85 Early Twentieth-Century Studies of the Nervous System and Behavior 87 Neuron Theory 87 Sir Charles Sherrington: The Synapse 89 Karl Lashley: Learning and the Cortex 90 Equipotentiality and Mass Action 91 In Perspective: The Nervous System and Behavior 94 iii iv CONTENTS CHAPTER 4 PSYCHOLOGY WUNDT AND GERMAN 98 An Education in Germany 99 On the Threshold of Experimental Psychology: Psychophysics 100 Ernst Weber (1795-1878) 101 Two-Point Thresholds 101 Weber's Law 101 Gustav Fechner (1801-1889) 103 Fechner's Elements of Psychophysics 105 Wundt Establishes a New Psychology at Leipzig 107 Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920): Creating a New Science 107 Wundt's Conception of the New Psychology 110 Studying Immediate Conscious Experience 110 Studying Higher Mental Processes 111 Inside Wundt's Laboratory 112 Sensation and Perception 112 Mental Chronometry 113 Close-Up: An American in Leipzig 116 Rewriting History: The New and Improved Wilhelm Wundt 117 The Source of the Problem 118 The Rediscovery of Wundt 118 The Real Wundt 119 The Wundtian Legacy 120 The New Psychology Spreads 120 Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909): The Experimental Study of Memory 120 Other Contributions by Ebbinghaus 125 G. E. Müller (1850-1934): The Experimentalist Prototype 125 Oswald Külpe (1862-1915): The Würzburg School 127 Mental Sets and Imageless Thoughts 128 In Perspective: A New Science 129 CHAPTER 5 THINKING DARWIN'S CENTURY: EVOLUTIONARY 132 The Species Problem 133 Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and the Theory of The Shaping of a Naturalist 135 The Voyage of the Beagle 136 Darwin the Geologist 137 Darwin the Zoologist 138 The Galápagos Islands 138 The Evolution of Darwin's Theory 139 Darwin's Delay 142 Elements of the Theory of Evolution 144 After the Origin of Species 145 Darwin and Psychology's History 147 The Origins of Comparative Psychology 148 Darwin on the Evolution of Emotional Expressions 148 Close-Up: Douglas Spalding and the Experimental Study of Instinct 150 George Romanes (1848-1894): The Anecdotal Method 152 Conwy Lloyd Morgan (1852-1936): The Principle of Parsimony 153 Comparative Psychology in America Studying Individual Differences 156 155 Francis Gallon (1822-1911): Jack of All Sciences 156 The Nature of Intelligence 157 The Anthropometric Laboratory 159 Investigating Imagery and Association In Perspective: Darwin's Century 162 CHAPTER 6 AMERICAN PIONEERS 161 166 Psychology in Nineteenth-Century America Faculty Psychology 167 167 American Psychology's First Textbook 168 The Modern University 169 Education for Women and Minorities 170 William James (1842-1910): America's First Psychologist 174 The Formative Years 175 A Life at Harvard 176 Creating American Psychology's Most Famous Textbook 178 On Methodology 179 Consciousness 180 Habit 181 Emotion 181 James's Later Years 183 Spiritualism 184 Summing Up William James 185 G. Stanlęy H a l l (1844-1924): Professionalizing: the New Psychology 185 Hall's Early Life and Education 187 From Johns Hopkins to Clark 188 Psychology at Clark 189 Close-Up: Creating Maze Learning 191 CONTENTS Hall and Developmental Psychology 192 Hall and Psychoanalysis 194 Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930): Challenging the Male Monopoly 195 Calkins's Life and Work 195 Graduate Education for Females 195 Calkins's Research on Association 196 From Psychology to Philosophy 198 Other Women Pioneers: Untold Lives 199 Christine Ladd-Franklin ( 1847-1930) 199 Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) 200 Other Pioneers: Ladd and Baldwin 201 George Trumbull Ladd (1842-1921) 201 James Mark Baldwin (1861-1934) 202 In Perspective: The New Psychology at the Millennium 203 CHAPTER 7 STRUCTURALISM AND FUNCTIONALISM 208 Titchener's Psychology: Structuralism 209 From Oxford to Leipzig to Cornell 210 Promoting Experimental Psychology at Cornell 211 The Manuals 211 The Experimentalists 214 Titchener's Structuralist System 217 Close-Up: The Introspective Attitude 219 The Structural Elements of Human Conscious Experience 220 Evaluating Titchener's Contributions to Psychology 221 America's Psychology: Functionalism 222 The Chicago Functionalists 224 John Dewey (1859-1952): The Reflex Arc 225 James R. Angell (1869-1949): The Province of Functional Psychology 227 Harvey Carr (1873-1954): The Maturing of Functionalism 230 The Columbia Functionalists 231 Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949): Connectionism 231 Thorndike on Puzzle Box Learning 233 The Thorndike-Mills Controversy 237 Robert S. Woodworm (1869-1962): A Dynamic Psychology 238 In Perspective: Structuralism and Functionalism 241 CHAPTER 8 PSYCHOLOGY v APPLYING THE NEW 245 Pressures Toward Application 246 The Mental Testing Movement 248 James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944): An American Galton 249 Alfred Binet (1857-1911): The Birth of Intelligence Testing 253 The Binet-Simon Scales 255 Henry H. Goddard (1866-1957): Binet's Test Comes to America 257 The Kallikaks 258 Goddard and the Immigrants 261 Lewis M. Terman (1877-1956): Institutionalizing IQ 262 The Stanford-Binet IQ Test 263 Terman Studies the Gifted 264 Close-Up: Leta Hollingworth: Advocating for Gifted Children and Debunking Myths about Women 266 Robert M. Yerkes (1876-1956): The Army Testing Program 2 6 8 Army Alpha and Army Beta 270 The Controversy Over Intelligence 275 Applying Psychology to Business 277 Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916): The Diversity of Applied Psychology 278 Münsterberg and Employee Selection 280 Other Leading Industrial Psychologists 283 Walter Van Dyke Bingham (1880-1952) 283 Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972) 284 Harry Hollingworth (1880-1956) 285 In Perspective: Applied Psychology 286 CHAPTER 9 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY 290 The Origins and Early Development of Gestalt Psychology 291 Max Wertheimer (1880-1943): Founding Gestalt Psychology 2 9 3 Koffka (1886-1941) and Köhler (1887-1967): The Co-Founders 296 Close-Up: A Case of Espionage? 297 Gestalt Psychology and Perception 299 Principles of Perceptual Organization 299 Behavioral Versus Geographic Environments 302 Psychophysical Isomorphism 302 The Gestalt Approach to Cognition and Learning 303 Köhler on Insight in Apes 303 vi CONTENTS Wertheimer on Productive Thinking 305 Other Gestalt Research on Cognition 306 Kurt Lewin (1890-1947): Expanding the Gestalt Vision 308 Early Life and Career 309 Field Theory 310 The Zeigarnik Effect 312 Lewin as Developmental Psychologist 312 Lewin as Social Psychologist 315 Action Research 317 Evaluating Lewin 318 In Perspective: Gestalt Psychology in America 319 CHAPTER 10 BEHAVIORISM THE ORIGINS OF 323 Behaviorism's Antecedents 324 Pavlov's Life and Work 326 The Development of a Physiologist 326 Working in Pavlov's Laboratory 328 Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Research 330 Conditioning and Extinction 331 Generalization and Differentiation 332 Experimental Neurosis 332 A Program of Research 333 Pavlov and the Soviets 334 Pavlov and the Americans 335 Close-Up: Misportraying Pavlov's Apparatus 335 John B. Watson and the Founding of Behaviorism 337 The Young Functionalist at Chicago 338 The Watson/Carr Maze Studies 339 Opportunity Knocks at Johns Hopkins 341 Watson and Animal Behavior 341 Watson's Behaviorist Manifesto 342 Watson's APA Presidential address 344 Studying Emotional Development 345 The Zenith and the Nadir of a Career: Little Albert 346 A New Life in Advertising 350 Popularizing Behaviorism 352 Evaluating Watsonian Behaviorism 353 In Perspective: Behaviorism's Origins 354 CHAPTER 11 THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIORISM 358 Post-Watsonian Behaviorism 359 Logical Positivism and Operationism Neobehaviorism 362 360 Edward С. Tolman (1886-1959): A Purposive Behaviorism 364 Tolman's System 365 Molar Versus Molecular Behavior 366 Goal-Directedness 366 Intervening Variables 367 Tolman's Research Program 369 Latent Learning 369 Cognitive Maps 371 Evaluating Tolman 373 Clark Hull (1884-1952): A Hypothetico-Deductive System 375 Hull's System 378 Postulate 4: Habit Strength 379 Reaction Potential 380 Evaluating Hull 380 B. F. Skinner (1904-1990): A Radical Behaviorism 383 The Experimental Analysis of Behavior 384 Operant Conditioning: A Primer 385 Skinner and Theory 388 Skinner and the Problem of Explanation 389 A Technology of Behavior 391 Close-Up: A Skinnerian Utopia 392 Evaluating Skinner 393 In Perspective: Neobehaviorism 394 CHAPTER 12 MENTAL ILLNESS AND ITS TREATMENT 399 Early Treatment of the Mentally 111 400 "Enlightened" Reform: Pinel, Tuke, Rush, and Itard 401 Reforming Asylums: Dix and Beers 404 Close-Up: Diagnosing Mental Illness 407 Mesmerism and Hypnosis 408 Mesmerism and Animal Magnetism 408 From Mesmerism to Hypnosis 410 The Hypnotism Controversies 411 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Founding Psychoanalysis 414 Early Life and Education 415 Breuer and the Catharsis Method 416 Creating Psychoanalysis 418 The Importance of Sex 420 Psychoanalysis Enters the Twentieth Century 421 The Evolution of Psychoanalytic Theory 422 Freud's Followers: Loyalty and Dissent 424 CONTENTS Psychoanalysis in America Freud in Perspective 428 Contributions 428 Criticisms 429 Clinical Psychology in America Influences Within Psychology 471 Influences External to Psychology 472 Close-Up: What Revolution? 475 426 Magical Numbers, Selective Filters, and TOTE Units 476 Neisser and the "Naming" of Cognitive 430 Lightner Witmer (1867-1956): Creating Psychology's First Clinic 430 Clinical Psychology Prior to World War II In Perspective: Treating Mental Illness 435 CHAPTER 13 PRACTITIONERS 433 The Brain and Behavior Researchers and Practitioners 440 The Emergence of Modern Clinical Psychology 441 The Boulder Model 442 The Eysenck Study: Problems for Traditional Psychotherapy 444 Close-Up: The Medical Strategy—Lobotomies, Transorbital and Otherwise 445 Behavior Therapy 447 The Humanistic Approach to Psychotherapy Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy 450 The Vail Conference and the Psy.D. Degree Psychology and the World of Business and Industry 455 485 486 Donald O. Hebb (1904-1985) Social Psychology 489 Leon Festinger (1919-1989) Personality Psychology 493 487 490 Gordon Allport (1897-1967) 494 Developmental Psychology 497 Jean Piaget (1896-1980) 497 In Perspective: Psychological Science 500 CHAPTER 15 AND PRESENT 453 460 CHAPTER 14 PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE IN THE POST-WAR ERA 464 LINKING PSYCHOLOGY'S PAST 504 The Growth and Diversity of Psychology 505 Women in Psychology's History 505 Eleanor Gibson (1910-2002) 506 Minorities in Psychology's History 508 Kenneth B. (1914-2005) and Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983) 509 Trends in Contemporary Psychology 511 The Future: Psychology or Psychologies? 512 465 The Roots of Modern Cognitive Psychology 465 Frederick С Bartlett (1886-1969): Constructing Memory 466 Bartlett on Memory 467 A Convergence of Influences 470 481 448 457 In Perspective: Psychologists as Practitioners Cognitive Psychology Arrives (Again) Psychology 480 The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology Artificial Intelligence 483 Evaluating Cognitive Psychology Other Research Areas 486 PSYCHOLOGY'S 439 The Hawthorne Studies vii REFERENCES 516 GLOSSARY 542 PHOTO, TEXT AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS NAME INDEX 559 SUBJECT INDEX 564 555 KEY DATE BOXES-DATE SUMMARY Chapter 2 1843 Chapter 3 1861 Chapter 4 1879 Chapter 5 1859 Chapter 6 1890 Chapter 7 1906 Chapter 8 1917 Chapter 9 1929 Chapter 10 1913 Chapter 11 1953 Chapter 12 1900 Chapter 13 1949 Chapter 14 1932 (Mill's Logic) 53 (Broca's "Tan") 85 (Wundt's lab) 109 (Darwin's Origin) 143 (James's Principles) 179 (Angell's APA address) 227 (Army testing program) 270 (International Yale conference) 313 (Watson's manifesto) 342 (Skinner's Science and Human Behavior) 390 (Freud's dream book) 420 (Boulder conference) 444 (Barlett's memory book) 472 ix