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Report of the
Latin America and Caribbean
Militaries Environmental and
Energy Working Group for the
Inter-American Defense Board (IADB)
Report for the IADB
Environmental and Energy Issues for the
Military
January 2014
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Table of Contents
I. Acknowledgments (0.5 - page)
II. Executive Summary (1-page)
III. Introduction and Background (2-pages)
IV. Environmental and Energy Issues for the Military (Total: 15 pages)
a. Central America (3-pages)
1. Central American Region
2. El Salvador
3. El Salvador military forces
b. Caribbean (3-pages)
1. Caribbean Region
2. Trinidad & Tobago
3. Trinidad & Tobago military forces
c. South America (3-pages)
1. Ecuatorial Region
2. Colombia
3. Colombian Navy
d. South America (3-pages)
1. Southern Cone
2. Chile
3. Chilean military forces
e. North America (3-pages)
1. North America Region
2. USA
3. US Military Forces
V Conclusion and Recommendations (2-pages)
VI. Appendices
VII. List of References
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Acknowledgements:
The Latin America and Caribbean Militaries Environmental and
Energy Working Group is pleased to forward this information paper to the Inter-American Defense Board
(IADB) on the implications of environmental variability on military organizations throughout the
Americas.
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Executive Summary:
The Inter-American Defense Board (IADB) maintains a tradition of leading collective action against
threats to hemispheric stability, to include threats to member military organizations’ preparedness to
execute core missions. It is with this recognition of the board’s ongoing and critical role in defense
related hemispheric matters that the Environmental and Energy Collaboration Working Group (EECWG)
brings to the attention of the board an intensifying hazard that could be a threat multiplier for stability and
security and can hinder the capacities of military organizations to support regional stability.
Environmental variability has been described as a slow-moving emergency and is increasingly considered
a global challenge to human security and will have significant
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______________. This report outlines how military organizations throughout the hemisphere have
already begun to be impacted by environmental factors such as global temperature rise with particular
focus on the impacts of disruptive degradations on IADB member states’ military installations, force
health, and general operational readiness.
Acknowledging that shifting environmental forces pose a long term threat to stability, United States
Southern command over the last ten years, hosted annual events that have increased awareness about
defense related environmental effects. The 2012 event resulted in the formation of the EECWG
established to examine how regional militaries are currently being impacted by ongoing and intensifying
environmental shifts. The EECWG is comprised of subject matter expert military officials from a
representative set of hemispheric states, specifically: Colombia, the United States of America, El
Salvador, Chile, Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados. The group examined the actual and likely impacts of
a variety of environmental factors induced by climate change on military forces, limiting its research and
scope to the onset environmental shifts that may impact the capacities of military organizations to execute
their core missions. It is important to note that the authors of this report did not aspire to conduct a
comprehensive country by country study of all states in this hemisphere, but rather endeavored to conduct
a research fueled assessment of the participating countries. Based on this analysis of observable and likely
future impacts to military organizations, the authors formulated a list of recommendation for the IADB to
take under consideration.
This report reveals that there exists today environmental degradation linked impacts to regional militaries’
facilities and operational readiness. It posits that environmental factors such as; natural resources scarcity
(e.g. clean water), energy, (e.g. __________) environmental degradation (e.g. deforestation), extreme
weather/catastrophic events (e.g. tornadoes and hurricanes) and infectious diseases (i.e. pandemics) must
be understood by military leadership as vulnerabilities to operational readiness. The instances and severity
of impacts are detailed in the pages that follow starting with a synopsis of sub-regional climate shifts. The
report then progresses to outline the impacts of these environmental shifts on military installations and
general operational readiness of the participating countries’ military forces as they have described it. The
group’s key findings inform the recommendations outlined on pages ___ most prominent among them
that the IADB serve as a forum and fusion center to raise awareness, foster dialogue, and intensify multilateral collaboration on environmental and energy issues for military resiliency and readiness.
By incorporating energy and environmental security matters into its regional collaboration framework the
IADB can continue its tradition of leading collective action in the face of challenges to regional military
organizations. The authors are confident that through mitigation and adaptation actions that IADB
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members can dramatically reduce the impacts of the “slow-moving emergency” on their respective
military organizations and the nations they serve.
Background:
On October 28, 2003 the Organization of American States (OAS) adopted the ‘Declaration of Security’
establishing that “environmental deterioration affects the quality of life of our peoples and may constitute
a threat, concern, or challenge to the security of states in the Hemisphere.” Through this declaration, the
organization’s Secretariat for Multidimensional Security called for action by all member states to
“undertake to strengthen our national capabilities” in the face of environmental degradation. It is with the
OAS’s acknowledgement of the clear and present challenge posed by environmental degradation that
several member states military representatives voluntarily established an Environmental and Energy
Collaboration Working Group.
The security threats, concerns, and other challenges in the hemispheric context are of
diverse nature and multidimensional scope, and the traditional concept and approach
must be expanded to encompass new and nontraditional threats, which include
political, economic, social, health, and environmental aspects. -- Organization of
American States
Origins of the Study: The group’s operational charter was established at a United States Southern
Command (USSOUTHCOM) environment and energy focus security cooperation event held in August
2012. The goal of the group was to examine in detail the challenge of environment degradation on
military organizations in the hemisphere. The working group decided that their first
___________________collaborative project would be this multi-authored ‘Environmental and Energy
Issues for the Military’ report. The findings are a result for numerous collaborative activities, to include
online chat sessions, designed to formulate a report drawing from the findings of all participating
representatives.
The Challenge:
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Environmental variability is a major global challenge that will have significant and lasting impacts on
human well-being and development (IPCC, 2007a; UNEP, 2007). These impacts threaten livelihoods,
cultures, economies, security and governance of OAS member states making it necessary to adapt rapidly
across many parts of society (Leith, 2010; Pascual and Elkind, 2010). Paradoxically, though the Latin
America has minimum responsibility for one of the main causes of global warming (it accounts for only
11.78% of emissions of greenhouse gases) member states will be impacted and national resources
strained as governments struggle to manage the increasing direct and indirect impacts of environment
degradation.
According to several Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate models the average
temperature increase projected for Latin America by the end of the century varies from 1 to 4°C. This
change will have a disproportionate impact on not only on coastal communities throughout the region,
but will also adversely impact national security organizations’ facilities and assets (e.g. Naval port,
critical sea side facilities, and patrol craft). This warming trend will result in adverse impacts on member
states to include; increased intensity of hurricanes; changes in precipitation patterns and intensity;
changes in temperature levels; longer droughts; increased sea level rise in coastal areas. These intensifying
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environmental shifts will not only affect local populations in adverse ways, but will also impact military
installations; operations; force health; and overall readiness to conduct varied missions.
According to UNEP, GEO LAC 3, 2010, the region’s vulnerability is not only due to more frequent
climatic events but also to the population’s ever greater exposure to these threats (Andean Community,
2008). The fall out of more frequent and intense meteorological events will lead to a requirement for
more robust national and regional response mechanisms and assets to provide search and rescue and
other first response services to affected and vulnerable populations. The IPCC report also estimates that
climate variability and extremes will affect coastal areas, and cause adverse impacts on low-lying coastal
areas, especially in Mesoamerica and the Caribbean) (UNEP, GEO LAC 3, 2010). Such effects will
adversely impact the livelihoods of coastal populations with possible security implications for law
enforcement and military organizations.
The impact of climate degradation is inextricably linked to fossil fuel consumption – a core causal factor
for the adverse impacts. Oil continues to be the region’s most important energy supply source (41.7%).
The exploitation of hydrocarbons is closely related to environmental deterioration, to the extent that even
IEA members recognize that current trends in energy management are not sustainable and that, because
the sector now makes a heavy contribution to climate change, a better balance must be found between
energy production and the environment (IEA, 2008; Omar Farouk, 2007). Military forces in the region
are large consumers of fossil fuels and there now exists an opportunity to explore and collaborate on
affordable and alternative energy solutions to lessen over reliance on environmentally harmful fuels.
Conclusion: A new emerging reality centered on environmental and energy related imperatives will
compel governments throughout the Americas to reassess national security priorities and develop
strategies to improve resiliencies in the face of intensifying environmental variability. This report
provides a synopsis of the most prominent environmental related impacts on four Western Hemisphere
sub-regions – the Caribbean, North America, Central America, and South America. It is designed to better
inform conversations at the national and regional levels on how regional militaries can become better
prepared to support civilian authorities to mitigate the effects of the “slow moving emergency” while
maintaining installations and operational resiliency and readiness.
All nations in this hemisphere should expect a continuing and increasing interplay between climate, land,
water, food, migration, and urbanization, economic, social, and political factors. Indeed, a new framework
of understanding is needed – one that incorporates environmental variability considerations into the
regional and national security calculus.
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IV. Environmental and Energy Issues for the Military (Total: 15 pages)
a. Central America (3-pages)
Central America
1. INTRODUCTION
Regional environmental effects The prevailing policies that are developing in Central America have been generating factors of climatic
risks, provoking a progressive process of mal-adaptation of the natural system and the human populations
toll on climate , its variability and its changes. Further, it is impossible to think of climate change without
considering the land, regardless of the processes that are taking place in the territories of each Central
American Nation, because this helps us understand what forces are shaping the territory of the region. The
most important factor that molds the territory is the settlement pattern of the population, as is the case
with the accelerated urbanization processes and their consequent implications of land use; this is certainly
a very strong and present dynamic in all Central American countries. Likewise, there are processes that
occur in rural areas, especially everything related to the expansion of agriculture and particularly with the
dynamics of the agriculture frontier -- processes that are still strongly present in the region.
Regional energy effects - When it comes down to energy, Central America is at a crossroads. The seven
countries in the Region Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama,
increasingly rely on fossil fuels for transportation and power generation, meanwhile the use of wood,
mainly used for cooking, continues to be high. All this at the cost of increasing greenhouse gas emission,
the deterioration of the quality of air and water, as well as other collective costs such as health. The
annual contribution of Central America, which represents only 0.16% of global carbon emissions, is
minuscule compared with the world's largest emitters. However, the recent announcement by climate
scientists that the Earth's atmosphere has crossed the threshold of 400 parts per million, reinforces the
need for all countries to participate in climate protection efforts.
Effects on El Salvador - Due to the fact that El Salvador has the highest population density in the
hemisphere, after Haiti, and a highly deforested territory of a sufficient vegetative coverage, it increases
the extent of the impact of extreme weather events, 90% of the population would be in risk, 95% of the
national territory and 90% of the GDP (Germwatch, 2010). With recent scientific studies that prove the
increase in the frequency, duration, intensity, and changes in the spatial distribution of the climatic
phenomena related to changes in the systems of the Pacific and Atlantic ocean, it is unviable for El
Salvador to sustain growth and aspire economic development without the implementation of a vision and
practice towards adapting to climate change. It is urgent that changes are vigorously promoted regarding
the conventional way of doing things, with actions and measures that can minimize the risk and
vulnerability of the means of life, health, physical and productive infrastructure of the country.
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El Salvador has severe environmental degradation and increasing vulnerability before climate change,
therefore the following specific problems have been identified:
1) Degradation of high value ecosystems: the ecosystems that are critical to El Salvador are the
mangroves, gallery forests, biological corridors and wetlands, which are in an advanced degree of
degradation. The recognition of the crucial role that the mangroves have, due to their multiple roles, is
almost unknown to the public, the value of the function of as a natural brake system against storm surges
and tsunamis, area of nutrition and reproduction of aquatic life and a major drain for carbon, not to
mention the source livelihood for a local population (curileros), being degraded by:
o An unorganized and unplanned increase of salt mines and shrimp
o Pollution by run off from near-by farms, solid waste, domestic and industrial waste
o Erosion due to unsustainable agricultural and livestock practices in the higher altitudes and
middle basins, causing the siltation of streams and bays.
o Indiscriminate felling and the conversion of salty forests to agricultural lands
o Expansion of human settlement
o Urban and tourist projects
2) Generalized environmental insalubrity: the discharge of untreated sewage, is a cause of gastrointestinal
diseases which are one of the first ten causes of death in the country and the second leading cause of
disease, has increased the risk of epidemic outbreaks of diarrheal and acute respiratory diseases, skin
diseases, mental health problems, and diseases transmitted by vectors, such as malaria and dengue.
3) Critical state of water resources: Both surface water and groundwater have suffered from deterioration,
the aquifers in the central coastal plain have been over-exploited, some aquifers in the western coastal
zone are salinized, loss of capability to regulate and infiltrate water, serious deterioration in the quality of
the water and the increasing climate variability, which has resulted in major changes in the spatial and
temporal distribution of rainfall, serious problems of erosion and loss of productive land in the upper parts
of the basins, helping to reduce the infiltration in the rainy season and the increase of surface runoff.
4) Disorderly occupation of the territory: there has been an irrational use of soil and other natural
resources, which have deepened the environmental degradation and vulnerability to natural hazards.
5) Increasing climatic threat: which will keep on growing with the tendencies of variability and extreme
events (cases): generating impact to scale of: rise, overflows and floods, loss of soil, slides, gullies,
siltation of drains, dams and ports, degradation of swamps, rivers, lagoons, estuaries and bays.
Effects of El Salvador military forces - South America, with the objective to cooperate in the diagnosis on
the impact of climate change on the military forces in the region, has prepared a compilation of
instruments that deliver information on this matter, which has been separated by countries, includes a
brief summary and the respective links where you can access the master document and obtain further
information
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Caribbean (3-pages)
Regional environmental effects - Indisputable evidence suggests that climate change is expected to have
the greatest impact in the most vulnerable tropical regions such as the Caribbean (IPCC 2007). Caribbean
Islands are economically, socially and physically vulnerable by their very nature and climate change is
expected to exacerbate existing social, environmental and economic vulnerabilities and create new ones
(Mimura et al., 2007; Topkins et al. 2005). It is therefore common to refer to climate change as a threat
multiplier. The root cause of the ongoing warming of the globe is chiefly as a result of one of the most
ubiquitous human practices: the conversion of fossil fuel through simple combustion (Pascual and Elkind,
2010).
One of the most important consequences of climate change, especially for Caribbean Islands, is sea level
rise and storm surge events with an increasing number of extreme storms (Simpson et al., 2010, 2009;
Wong, 2010; Allison, N.L. et al., 2009; Singh et al. 2009; Webster, 2005; Singh, 1997). Singh (1997a)
has suggested that the rate of sea level rise in the Southern Caribbean significantly exceeds the average
global mean. This is evident in the Southern Caribbean Island of Trinidad where the relative sea level has
risen by 20 cm in the past century and it is estimated to increase by approximately 6 cm per decade (Singh
1997b). Singh (1997b) has contended that in addition, the rate of coastal erosion is particularly extreme in
the South west coast of the island where 1-2 m of its coastline is eroded annually. This figure can reach
up to 10-12 m in some places in a single year. Of particular concern is the increasing vulnerability to sea
level rise since 70% of all economic activity takes place within 2 miles of the coastline (Collymore 2009).
The destructive power of natural phenomena such as hurricanes has been identified as a threat to national
security since it has the ability to disrupt energy supplies and severely damage infrastructure (Van Vactor
2010). This is of particular concern for the Caribbean where observed hurricane activity in the North
Atlantic has shown an increased hurricane frequency in contrast to global frequency that showed no trend.
There has also been a significant increase in the number of hurricanes reaching categories 4 and 5 since
1995 (Webster 2005). This, according to Goldenberg et al. (2001) represents ‘a 2.5 fold increase in major
hurricanes (category 3-5) and a 5-fold increase in hurricanes affecting the Caribbean.’ Whilst Van Vactor
(2010:105) has acknowledged that the commodity market has become more sophisticated, it does concede
that Navy Ships, tanks, logistical support and so on all depend on a the availability of particular type of
fuel. It is also acknowledged that there are substitutes for oil, however, it takes time and considerable
expense to make the adjustments. It therefore can be concluded that major hurricane activity in the region
can have dire effects to on Caribbean militaries ability to respond to major natural disasters over a
protracted period and would require significant reinforcement from external agencies.
Regional Energy effects - This region is of significant importance to the nation’s economy which hinges
on its exports of petroleum. Trinidad and Tobago: Whilst efforts are now underway to diversify the
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country’s economic activity away from the South west coast to Galeota in the southeast, this issue of
erosion and storm surges still exists (Lal 2013). This risky situation is coupled with an additional threat
since it has been suggested that the South west coast is also subsiding as a result of extensive offshore
drilling for oil (Kanithi and Rosano, 2009; Singh, 1997a).
Effects on the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago - The impacts to communities and their quality of life due
to the loss of a sense of place, security and livelihood were not adequately considered during this survey.
There is also a gap in the academic literature regarding climate change knowledge. With one exception,
studies have not been completed to date that have specifically assessed lay knowledge and perceptions of
sea level rise and climate change in this region. There is also no study regarding the true value of the
effect of climate change to Trinidad and Tobago’s economy, more specifically the impacts to the nation’s
security. This therefore provides an opportunity for further research. In Trinidad, the State owned
Petroleum Company of Trinidad and Tobago Limited, PETROTRIN, which conducts its major operations
in South west Trinidad commissioned a vulnerability assessment from 2004 to 2007 as well as a storm
survey simulation through modeling of the South west coast. The purpose of the survey was to identify
the impacts of climate driven sea level rise and extreme storm surge events on the company’s
infrastructure and operations (Singh et al., 2009). The results revealed that the company’s assets would be
at considerable risk of inundation and erosion caused by sea level rise and storm surges. Major companies
such as “Atlantic” which is the seventh largest Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) exporter in the world and is
responsible for processing approximately half of Trinidad and Tobago’s natural gas production is also
located in the South western peninsular of Trinidad (Atlantic 2013).
Considering the global geopolitics of oil and gas, bpTT’s President Norman Christie has acknowledged
that most of the company’s large discoveries in shallow waters around Trinidad and Tobago have already
been produced or are at the tail end of their lifecycle. He suggested that the new prospects that the
company is developing to meet the industry’s demand for gas in the short- to medium-term are now in
much more complex geology, in deeper waters, and are more costly developments (John-Lall 2013). This
has serious implications for the energy security of the island state whose economy is still heavily
dependent on the revenues from the petroleum sector. It will also mean there is increased risk to the
country’s environment and ecology as well as the need by the nation’s Coast Guard to possess appropriate
naval assets that would be capable of patrolling for long period to sure that security of personnel and
petroleum assets in these areas. This is of particular concern especially since the Caribbean Sea has an
extremely high level of shipping activity and low levels of maritime policing.
Serena Joseph-Harris, former High Commissioner of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago to the UK has
lamented that apart from the need to secure offshore petroleum installations, the immediate challenge
confronting Caribbean governments in the region is the securing of their territorial waters from the
insidious passage of illegal cargo, including drugs and firearms ( Brock 2011). The Republic of Trinidad
and Tobago is one such Caribbean nation. It lies in the “corridors” between drug producers in South
America and markets in the North. According to the United Nations 2010 Annual Drug Report,
Colombia, Peru and Bolivia are the world’s primary sources of cocaine, whilst 36% of the world’s
cocaine users reside in North America (UNODC 2010). This complexity cannot go unaddessed since the
security of not only T&T but other nations depends on our ability to stem this threat.
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Effects on Armed Forces – Trinidad and Tobago
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c. South America – Andean Ridge (3-pages)
Regional environmental effects - The environmental richness is threatened by a variety of factors,
including changes in land use, the exploitation of hydrocarbons and the process of constant urban growth.
Great areas of temperate and tropical forest (both dry and moist) have been, and continue to be,
transformed to meet domestic and international demand.
Various phenomena indicate the impact that global warming has had in the Region, including increased
intensity and frequency of hurricanes in the Caribbean, changes in precipitation distribution patterns and
intensity, changes in temperature levels, more droughts, increased sea level rise in coastal areas of South
Atlantic countries, melting glaciers in Patagonia and the Andes, and ice sheet losses in West Antarctica
(UNEP, 2009; Magrin and others, 2007; UNEP and SEMARNAT, 2006). As stated by UNEP,GEO LAC
3, 2010, the Region’s vulnerability is not only due to more frequent climatic events but also to the
population’s ever greater exposure to these threats of the population, agriculture, fisheries, tourism, etc.
(Andean Community, 2008). Data from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predict
even more disturbing future situations. In 2007 it projected that sea levels could rise by between 18cm
and 59cm in this century, and many researchers now believe that the sea level increase will be even
greater –between 0.8 and 1.5 meters– in part as a result of new assessments of the physical fracture
potential of the Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets (UNEP, 2009). Magrin and others (2007) note that,
according to different IPCC climate models, the average temperature increase projected for Latin America
by the end of the century varies from 1 to 4°C for scenarios that contemplate certain levels of emissions
mitigation, and from 2 to 6°C for scenarios that do not make such predictions.
The IPCC report estimates, with a high degree of confidence, that under future climate change there is a
risk that it is very likely that increases in mean sea level, climate variability and extremes will affect
coastal areas, and cause adverse impacts on low-lying coastal areas, including destruction of mangroves,
coral reefs (especially in Mesoamerica and the Caribbean) (UNEP,GEO LAC 3, 2010). The availability
of drinking water on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, Ecuador and the Río de la Plata estuary, among
others, would also be affected.
As indicated by UNEP, GEO LAC 3, 2010, the reaction to the consequences of climate change can
become a driving force that could underlie another driving force. It is obvious that, because less attention
is paid by the climate change hierarchy to issues such as deforestation, biodiversity loss, and soil
degradation, this could have a negative effect on the environmental sustainability of the Latin American
and Caribbean territory.
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Regional energy effects The exploitation of hydrocarbons is closely related to environmental
deterioration, to the extent that even IEA members recognize that current trends in energy management
are not sustainable and that, because the sector now makes a heavy contribution to climate change, a
better balance must be found between energy production and the environment (IEA, 2008; Omar Farouk,
2007). Recent data show that between 1970 and 2006 the Region doubled its population and quadrupled
average electricity consumption (from 427 to 1,688 kilowatt hours per capita) (ECLAC, 2009c).
Impacts on the Republic of Colombia –
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Recommendations for Military Forces 1. There is an impact over military operations and military units that can be inferred based on information
about the situation of climate change and energy in the Latin America and the Caribbean region from
UNEP, GEO LAC 3, 2010. For this reason collaboration between the military forces of the region is
extremely important and recommended.
2. There is the need to develop a network that helps to interchange information and technology among the
military forces of the region.
3. There is a need for training programs to be implemented that help LAC countries to obtain the
expertise required to develop risk assessment studies for military units.
4. Training is necessary for the use of prediction models that help to prognosticate the risk of flooding for
existing and future military units in the region.
5. Efforts must be continued to build capacities and experience among the military forces in the region to
confront future environmental challenges.
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c. South America – Southern Cone (3-pages)
Regional environmental effects –
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Effects on the Republic of Chile - According to the latest scientific report of the Panel of Experts on
Climate Change for United Nations (IPCC, 2007), a series of current and future impacts associated with
climate change are present in Chile. For example, in regard to changes in rainfall patterns, a decline in
precipitation in the south of Chile has been identified as a trend, which is coincident with the climatic
trends observed for that area of the country. In the case of variations in sea level, the report notes that
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these can also lead to changes in the location of fish stocks in the southeastern Pacific. Regarding
agriculture, there are future declines projected in harvests for a number of crops, such as corn and wheat,
and in more arid areas, such as Northern and Central Chile, climate change may lead to salinization and
desertification of agricultural land.
In terms of water resources, a high vulnerability to extreme events is expected. In particular, a high
impact on energy availability in the country is expected by anomalies associated with El Niño and La
Niña, as well as restrictions on water availability and demands of irrigation in Central Chile, by the same
phenomena. On the other hand, recent studies point to Chile as the potential harm in the availability of
water and sanitation in coastal cities, and contamination of underground aquifers due to saline intrusion.
In regards to glaciers, a dramatic decrease in volume throughout recent decades is being witnessed, and
the South of Chile is one of the most affected areas. For human health, an increase in outbreaks of a
pulmonary syndrome caused by the Hanta virus after prolonged droughts has been reported, specifically
for Chile, among other countries. This is probably due to the heavy rains and floods that occur after the
drought, which increases the availability of food for domestic rodents. Finally, it is believed that air
pollution will be exacerbated due to the burning of fossil fuels tin order to meet transportation needs in
urban areas such as Santiago, and that the risk of forest fires will be enhanced by climate change.
The effects on Chilean Military Forces - Preliminary Implications of Climate Change in the Military
Forces based upon the preliminary analysis of the precedents, you can infer possible implications for the
Military Forces, which are part of society and would be affected by the effects of climate change.
Firstly, it can be established that in order to ensure optimal compliance with all national and international
environmental regulations, cooperation in the reduction of the impacts of climate change, including those
such as: reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, using renewable energy, waste treatment (management),
environmental protection measures, simply to list the most important. The second implication would be
associated with the supporting role that the community could contribute against the adverse effects of
climate change such as: droughts, floods, forest fires and diseases, among other issues.
An idea yet to be explored would be to collaborate with the scientific and technological capabilities that
military forces have, in order to enhance studies or measures that the States, through their respective
environmental ministries, may consider necessary to implement.
In the same manner, and in order to collaborate with the state, it would be of great interest to incorporate a
team of experts and delegates of the military forces that are responsible for developing environmental
policies, in order to focus and transmit the most experience on these matters.
Finally, a fifth implication, would be associated with education, awareness and training, both inside of the
armed institutions and also, to the community, to promote sustainable development.
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e. North America (3-pages)
Effects on the region - Though North American states (i.e. Canada, the United States and Mexico) are
generally more capable of mitigating and responding to the potential and actual impacts of changes in the
environment, factors such as; topography, national capacities and human geography will make some
countries more susceptible to the effects of specific environmental factors than others. The following is a
short list of some of the impacts environmental variability is already having on North American states.
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Due to sea level rise, increase in inundations, and storm surge flooding, shoreline erosion. This
will affect the people living in the coastal ecosystems like salt marshes.
Wildfire and insect outbreaks have been increasing and are likely to intensify.
Increased risk of deaths due to heat waves, water-borne diseases, and degraded water quality,
respiratory illness, and vector-borne infectious diseases.
Due to diminishing snowfields, the availability of water has become a major issue. This will add
to the pressure on the availability of groundwater.
Canada, the United States and Mexico, in the recent past, have all experienced economic damage, plus
substantial ecosystem, social and cultural disruption from weather-related extremes which include
hurricanes, floods, droughts, heat waves and wildfires. Further, economic damage from severe weather
has increased dramatically, due largely to increased value of the infrastructure at risk. For example,
annual costs to North American states have now reached tens of billions of dollars in damaged property
and economic productivity, as well as lives disrupted and lost. 1 Extreme events, from natural disasters to
severe droughts, will become increasingly more common requiring that sustainability and resilience
become essential elements of national security strategy of North American states. 2
Regional Energy effects _____________________________________________________________________________________
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1
North America. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
http://know.climateofconcern.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=article&id=109
2
The Concept of Environmental Security, By Kent Hughes Butts, Sherri Goodman, Nancy Nugent (2012)
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“The melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic plus the frequency and intensity of weather
events in this hemisphere, with the corresponding need for military humanitarian
assistance missions, calls for a greater attention to the security implications of climate
change”
Effects on the military - United States of America: Our leadership in the Department of Defense (DoD)
has been considering different aspects of environmental and energy issues and potential effects on US
Military facilities, operations, training and missions we undertake. Over the last five years, US national
security and defense guidance have highlighted the potential effects of environmental stressors in the
future security environment. Physical pressures such as population, resources, energy, climatic and
environmental, could combine with rapid social, cultural, technological and geopolitical change to create
greater uncertainty.3 Subsequent guidance brought attention to the uncertain effects of climate change to
the physical environment and the relation to the military missions. While climate change alone does not
cause conflict, it may act as an accelerant of instability or conflict, placing a burden to respond on civilian
institutions and militaries around the world. 4 Environmental factors have the potential to directly affect
our military forces as we are supported by the physical environment in which we operate. Here are some
examples of environmental factors that DoD is looking into from a risks/vulnerabilities assessment
perspective5.
Facilities:
o precipitation patterns affect water availability
o storm frequency and flooding affect maintenance costs for roads, utilities and runways
o storm frequency and flooding affect flood control and erosion control measures
o rising temperatures increase energy costs for building and industrial base operations
o coastal flooding and storm surge affect coastal infrastructure and cost of infrastructure
reinforcement and other modifications
o coastal flooding affect the demand for surface water resources and associated cost of saltwater
intrusion countermeasures
o inland and coastal flooding may affect future land availability and siting of new construction
Operations
o high temperatures may affect airlift capacity and change operational parameters for equipment
o higher temperatures increase operational health risks
o precipitation patterns affect land carrying capacity for vehicle maneuvers
o increased storm frequency and intensity may cause temporary or prolonged disruption of
operations
o flooding disrupts access to water crossings and river operations
o flooding increases transportation infrastructure damage
o coastal flooding and storm surge may have impacts on supply chain from potential shipping
interruptions
3
2008 National Defense Strategy
4
2010 Quadrennial Defense Review
5
2012 Strategic Sustainability Performance Plan, Appendix 2
17
Training:
o high-heat days cause training day limitations
o rising temperatures reduce live-fire training
o changes in precipitation patterns affect availability of training lands
o coastal flooding and storm surge impacts littoral and shore training and ranges
Missions
o environmental degradation may increase the potential for conflict or humanitarian crises
o extreme weather events may lead to increased demands for defense support to civil authorities for
humanitarian assistance or disaster response6
Environmental Issues – US
US MIL example: Studying environmental variability factors for military facility planning7
DoD commissioned a study via the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program
(SERDP), addressing how climate change and sea-level rise might affect a coastal military installation,
using Eglin Air Force Base (EAFB) region on the northwest Florida coast as a typical example. The
emphasis was on how the base's infrastructure could be affected by sea-level rise and changes in the
intensity of tropical cyclones over the next century.
Located on the panhandle coast of northwest Florida, EAFB is used by the U.S. military for technology
development and testing as well as training grounds. Because of its’ location and proximity to the Gulf of
Mexico, the facility is exposed to hurricane winds and storm surge. Some of the infrastructure has been
constructed on a barrier island, Santa Rosa Island.
Below are some of the results that characterize outcomes of studying environmental variability factors for
military facilities:
 The research validated methods for predicting different sea-level rise rates in the EAFB area.
 Models show that rates of beach erosion and barrier island change are strongly coupled to the sea-level
rise rate. This, in turn, has a direct impact on the facilities on Santa Rosa Island, on the coastal
wetlands and on the island’s groundwater resources.
 Physical conditions at the EAFB area have facilitated a stable shoreline throughout much of the 20th
century. However, clusters of hurricanes have caused substantial changes in the island’s morphology,
including significant shore erosion, which have required beach nourishment projects.
 The strongest hurricanes are getting stronger as oceans continue to warm. This will lead to a greater
loss potential to military infrastructure from high surge and winds from future storms that will be
exacerbated by rising sea levels. Modeling future storms resulted useful to predict areas in the military
facility more prone to flooding.
 For groundwater, numerical simulations indicated that in the unconfined aquifer, the sea level rise and
associated storm surges can lead to salinity intrusion into groundwater and the surface waters, which
have negative impacts on human water usage and ecosystems, especially on Santa Rosa Island.
For a complete review of the results of the study please refer to the following link: http://www.serdpestcp.org/Program-Areas/Resource-Conservation-and-Climate-Change/Climate-Change/Vulnerabilityand-Impact-Assessment/RC-1700
6
2010 Quadrennial Defense Review
7
Effects of Near-Term Sea-Level Rise on Coastal Infrastructure, SERDP Project RC-1700, March 2013
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Studies like this serve to inform military facility managers of short, mid and long term challenges for
which they need to plan such as: coastal erosion mitigation measures like beach nourishment projects,
flood mitigation measures for facilities prone to coastal flooding and well water pumping management to
reduce the risk of salinity intrusion.
V. Conclusion and Recommendations (2-pages)
19
VI. Appendices
20
VII. List of References
21