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Transcript
Chapter 14 Social Psychology Module 14.1 Perceiving Others Module 14.1 Preview Questions What are the major influences on first impressions, and why do first impressions often become lasting impressions? What role do cognitive biases play in the judgments we make about the causes of behavior? Module 14.1 Preview Questions (Cont’d) What are attitudes, and how are they acquired? How are attitudes related to behavior? What How is cognitive dissonance theory? do persuasive appeals lead to attitude change? Social Psychology Studies how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by our social interactions with others and the culture in which we live Social perception is the process by which we come to form an understanding of our social environment Based on observations of others, personal experiences, and information we receive Impression Formation: Why First Impressions Count So Much The process by which we form an opinion or impression of another person First impressions: Formed quickly Tend to be long-lasting Difficult to change Impressions formed affect how we relate to those people Impression Formation (Cont’d) Influenced by: Personal disclosure Social schemas Stereotypes Impressions prophecies can become self-fulfilling Attributions: Why the Pizza Guy is Late Personal explanations about the causes of behaviors or events Two types of attributions: Dispositional Causes: internal factors, such as characteristics or traits of the person Situational Causes: external or environmental factors Cognitive Biases in Attribution Fundamental attribution error Tendency to attribute behavior to internal factors, ignoring situational influences Cross-cultural differences Actor-observer effect Attribute one’s own behavior to external causes Attribute others’ behavior to internal causes Self-serving bias Attribute personal success to internal factors Attribute failure to external factors Attitudes: How do you feel about… A positive or negative evaluation of persons, objects, or issues Conceptualized as consisting of three components: Cognitions (set of beliefs) Emotions (feelings) Behaviors (inclinations to act) Sources of Attitudes Our social environment (e.g., parents, teachers, peers, experiences, media) Heredity, through its influence on our: Intelligence Temperament Personality traits Attitudes and Behavior: Not as strong a link as you might expect Attitudes are only modestly linked to behavior Many factors limit this relation, especially situational constraints Cognitive Dissonance Theory What happens when actions deviate from attitudes? Inconsistencies between attitudes and behavior leads to a state of dissonance or emotional discomfort Dissonance motivates one to change attitude or behavior to make them compatible Module 14.2 Relating to Others Module 14.2 Preview Questions What are the major determinants of attraction? What are the three components of love in Sternberg’s model of love? What factors are linked to helping behavior? What is prejudice, and how does it develop? What can be done to reduce prejudice? What factors contribute to human aggression? Social Standards of Behavior Social roles- a socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of persons in a given setting or group Scripts- knowledge about the sequence of events and actions that are expected in a particular setting Social norms- group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate & acceptable for attitudes & behavior of members What Is Attraction? Feeling of liking others Having positive thoughts about them Inclination Includes to act positively toward them friendships and romantic relationships Determinants of Attraction Similarity Physical attractiveness “What is beautiful is good” stereotype Affects how we are perceived by others Matching hypothesis Proximity Reciprocity Figure 14.5: Sternberg’s Triangular Model of Love Helping Behavior: Lending a hand to others in need Tragedy But how to explain the heroic efforts on 9/11? Helping of Kitty Genovese (1964) is a form of prosocial behavior Behavior that is beneficial to others Two types of motives underlie helping behavior: Altruistic motives Self-centered motives Influences on Helping Situational ambiguity Perceived cost Diffusion of responsibility Similarity Empathy Facial features Mood and gender Attributions of the cause of need Social norms Prejudice: Attitudes that harm Preconceived attitude, formed without critical thought or evaluation of the facts Usually an unfavorable attitude Components: Cognitive: biased beliefs about other groups Emotions: dislike toward members of other groups Behavior: discrimination or biased/unfair treatment of people based on group membership How Does Prejudice Develop? Outgrowth Stereotypes are learned or acquired Direct experience Cognitive of negative stereotypes biases Out-group negativism In-group favoritism Out-group homogeneity Prejudice: Individual Differences Learning experiences Cognitive style Universalist orientation = less prejudiced Authoritarian personality style Rigidity, obedience, and respect for authority Effects of Stereotyping and Prejudice Racism is the negative bias held toward members of other racial groups Significant source of environmental stress for many African Americans Negative effects of stereotyping: Lowered expectations Beliefs can become internalized Can become a self-fulfilling prophecy Reducing Prejudice: Allport’s Contact Hypothesis Reduce prejudice by bringing groups into close contact Facilitated by: Social and institutional support Acquaintance potential Equal status Intergroup cooperation Reducing Prejudice: Individual Efforts Avoid stereotypical thinking Reject negative thoughts Rehearse positive images Taking part in cooperative projects in which we get to interact with people of different backgrounds Diversity education Is Human Aggression Instinctual? Fighting instinct as basic survival mechanism (Konrad Lorenz) Human aggression may be too complex to be based on instinct Influences on Aggression Biological Violent behavior and abnormal brain circuitry Male sex hormone, testosterone Inherited tendencies Learning Influences Influences Observational learning, modeling, and imitation Reinforcement of aggression Influences on Aggression (Cont’d) Sociocultural Violence occurs within social contexts Violence as a social influence tactic Alcohol Influences use Strongly linked to aggressive behavior Loosens inhibitions and restraints on impulsive behaviors Impairs cognitions, sensitivity, perception Influences on Aggression (Cont’d) Emotional States Frustration and anger may trigger aggression Environmental Influences Higher temperatures, more aggression Module 14.3 Group Influences on Individual Behavior Module 14.3 Preview Questions What is social identity? What was the significance of the Asch study on conformity? Why were Milgram’s findings so disturbing, and why were his methods so controversial? How does the presence of others affect individual performance? What is groupthink? Our Social Selves: “Who are We?” Personal Identity: involves sense of ourselves as unique individuals Social Identity: involves sense of ourselves as members of particular groups “Group identity” More of a prominent part of one’s identity in collectivistic cultures Conformity: Bending the “I” to Fit the “We” Tendency to adjust one’s behavior to actual or perceived social pressures What pressures do we conform to? General social norms Group or peer norms Asch’s classic study on conformity Why Do People Conform? Assume the majority must be correct Group acceptance is more important than being correct It is easier to go along with the group than to disagree Influences on Conformity Gender (women) Culture (collectivist cultures) Age (younger) Personality (low self-esteem, shyness, desire to be liked by the group) Situational factors (public, size of the group, dissent) Why Do We Obey Authority? Milgram’s Obedience Studies “Teacher” shocks “learner” Most participants obeyed, delivering high voltage shock Demonstrates potential for ordinary people to do harm by following authority Provoked an ethical controversy Why Do People Obey Immoral Commands? Legitimization Taught at an early age to obey and not question authority figures Social of authority validation or social comparison What are others doing? Easier to comply with extreme requests if already complied with lesser requests Social Facilitation Tendency for people to work better or harder when working in the presence of others Exposure to others induces energizing arousal Increases performance of dominant responses But not always the correct response Social Loafing Tendency for people to apply less effort working as members of a group More likely when performance is not being evaluated Reduced with: More appealing tasks Visibility of individual performance Individual accountability Groupthink: How can smart people make dumb decisions? Tendency for members of a group to lose ability for critical evaluation More concerned with reaching a consensus More likely to occur when: Members are strongly attached to group An external threat is present Group is directed by a strong-minded leader Avoiding Groupthink Encourage consideration of all alternatives Group leader avoids stating preferences Seek outside opinions and analyses Encourage someone to play the role of “devil’s advocate.” Subdivide into independent groups Have several meetings to reassess and evaluate new information Module 14.4 Compliance: Doing What Others Want You to Do Compliance Process of acceding to the requests or demands of others Factors influencing compliance: Authority Social validation Desire for consistency Compliance Strategies Using consistency to one’s advantage: Low-ball technique Bait-and-switch technique Foot-in-the-door technique Taking advantage of reciprocity: Door-in-the-face technique