Download Chapter 2 Section 2 Study Notes

CHAPTER 2 Section 2 Study Notes
I.
The Emergence of Rome (pages 66-67)
A.
Indo-European peoples moved into Italy from about 1500 to 1000 B.C. One
people spoke Latin, an Indo-European language, and lived as herders and farmers
on Rome's hills. After 800 B.C., other people, including the Greeks and
Etruscans, settled in Italy.
B.
Early Rome was ruled by kings, some of whom were Etruscan. In 509 B.C. the
Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and established a republic. In a republic
the leader is not a king and certain citizens have the right to vote.
C.
Enemies surrounded Rome, and so the young republic began a long period of
continuous warfare. By 267 B.C., Rome had defeated the Greeks and remaining
Etruscan states and controlled almost all of Italy.
D.
To rule, the Romans devised the Roman Confederation. Some people had full
Roman citizenship. Other groups were allies who controlled their local affairs but
gave soldiers to Rome. Such people could become Roman citizens. Thus many of
the conquered peoples felt invested in Rome's success.
E.
Rome faced a strong power in the Mediterranean—Carthage, which was founded
around 800 B.C. on the coast of North Africa. Carthage had a large trading empire
in the western Mediterranean.
F.
The Romans fought three wars with Carthage. During the second war, the
victories of Carthage's greatest general, Hannibal, almost brought Rome to
disaster. After creating new armies and a navy, the Romans defeated Hannibal's
forces. Spain became a Roman province, and Rome controlled the western
Mediterranean. Rome completely destroyed Carthage in 146 B.C.
G.
In the second century B.C. Rome also conquered Macedonia and Greece. In 133
B.C. Pergamum became Rome's first province in Asia. Rome was now master of
the Mediterranean Sea.
Discussion Question
Why did extending Roman citizenship to conquered peoples help Rome expand its
empire? (Granting conquered people citizenship gave them a stake in Rome's growth and
success. They were much less likely to revolt, therefore, and more likely to contribute to
the empire.)
II.
The Roman State (pages 67-68)
A.
The Romans distrusted kingship because of their experience with Etruscan kings.
They built a different form of government.
B.
Early Rome was divided into two groups, the patricians and the plebeians.
Patricians were large landowners who formed Rome's ruling class. The plebeians
were the less-wealthy landholders, craftspeople, merchants, and small farmers.
Members of both groups were citizens and could vote. Only patricians could be
elected to public office.
C.
The chief executive officers of the Roman Republic were the consuls and
praetors. Two consuls ran the government and led the army into battle. The
praetor directed the civil law—law as it applied to citizens. Later another praetor
was added to handle the law as it applied to noncitizens.
D.
The Roman Senate was especially important. About three hundred patricians who
served for life made up the original Senate. At first only an advisory body, by the
third century B.C. the Senate had the force of law.
E.
The most important people's assembly was the centuriate assembly. It elected the
consuls and praetors, and passed laws. It was organized by classes based on
wealth, so the wealthiest citizens always were the majority.
F.
There was often conflict between the patricians and the plebeians. The plebeians
wanted political and social equality. Finally, in 471 B.C., a popular assembly
called the council of the plebs was created. New officials, called the tribunes of
the plebs, were empowered to protect the plebeians.
G.
By 287 B.C., all male Roman citizens were supposedly equal under the law.
However, a few wealthy patrician and plebeian families formed a new senatorial
ruling class that came to dominate political office, which meant that the Roman
Republic had not become a democracy.
Discussion Question
The plebeians fought to protect Rome even though they were not the political or social
equals of the patricians. History shows that often groups are put in this position. African
Americans were in this position for many of America's wars. Some people argue that they
still are. Assume for the moment that such a group wants to have political and social
equality. Should people in the group serve their country or refuse to fight? (Answers will
vary. Accept answers that understand the unfairness of asking such a group to fight and
the issue of the best way to go about changing the situation of inequality. History shows
that fighting for a country can advance a group's status in that country.)
III.
From Republic to Empire (pages 68-69)
A.
Between 509 and 264 B.C., Rome expanded to control most of what is presentday Italy. By 133 B.C., Rome controlled the Mediterranean Sea.
B.
Rome's republican institutions could not rule an empire. The Senate became the
real governing body. Rival factions within the Senate fought for power and
created disorder. In the first century B.C., Roman leaders began to recruit armies
that swore allegiance to the general and not to the state.
C.
Between 82 and 31 B.C., various individuals including Julius Caesar competed
for power. After Caesar's assassination, his grandnephew Octavian took control of
the Roman world.
D.
The period from 31 B.C. to A.D. 14 is known as the Age of Augustus. The Senate
awarded Octavian the title of Augustus ("the revered one") in 27 B.C. Augustus
controlled the army and thus had great power. The Senate gave Augustus the title
imperator (commander in chief) from which our word emperor is derived.
Augustus became the first emperor of the Roman Empire.
Discussion Question
Commenting on Rome's civil strife, the first century B.C. Roman historian Sallust said
that the lust for money (greed) and the lust for power (extreme ambition) are the roots of
all evils. Is Sallust correct about the effects of greed and extreme ambition? (Answers will
vary. Accept answers that understand Sallust's views concerning the effects of these two
forces on people's characters, and answers that argue for other effects that greed and
extreme ambition may have on character.)
IV.
The Early Empire (pages 69-70)
A.
The period called the Early Empire lasted from A.D. 14 to 180. During part of this
time (A.D. 96-180), a series of five so-called good emperors—Nerva, Trajan,
Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius—led Rome and created a time of
peace and prosperity called the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace").
B.
The good emperors respected the ruling classes, ended arbitrary executions,
maintained peace, and supported domestic policies that benefited the empire.
These emperors, however, also took power away from the Senate; officials
appointed and directed by the emperor began to run the government.
C.
The good emperors instituted programs to help the people. Trajan provided funds
to help the poor educate their children. Trajan and Hadrian were especially active
in building public works—aqueducts, bridges, roads, and harbor facilities.
D. By the second century, the Roman Empire covered about three and a half million
square miles (9.1 million square km) and had a population estimated at over 50
million.
E. The Early Empire was prosperous. Internal peace helped trade grow. Merchants
from across the empire came to the main Italian ports. Trade went beyond the
empire's frontiers and included silk goods from China. Large amounts of grain
were imported to feed the people and luxury items came in for the rich. Farming,
however, remained the chief occupation and the basis of Roman prosperity.
Discussion Question
Lord Acton of Britain (1834-1902) wrote, "Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts
absolutely." Do the actions of the first Roman emperors support or contradict this point of view?
(Answers will vary. Accept any answer that is relevant and thoughtful. Students should consider
the state of Rome before and after the establishment of the Roman Empire. One good answer
would argue that we need the advice, restraint, shame, and other influences of others to guide us
in our actions and decisions. Those who have absolute power usually isolate themselves from
such influences because they think they have no equals. Therefore, they are more vulnerable to
corruption.)
V.
Roman Law (pages 70-71)
A.
B.
One of Rome's most important contributions to society was its system of law.
Rome's first code of law, the Twelve Tables, was adopted in 450 B.C. Later
Rome adopted a more sophisticated system of civil law, which applied to Roman
citizens only.
As Rome expanded and special rules were needed, a body of law was developed known
as the Law of Nations, which the Romans considered as natural law, or universal law
based on reason. These standards included principles still recognized today: a person was
innocent until proven guilty, people accused of wrongdoing were allowed to defend
themselves, and judges weighed evidence carefully before arriving at a decision.
Discussion Question
What American document promotes many of the same legal principles found in the
Roman Law of Nations? (The first 10 amendments of the Constitution, known as the Bill
of Rights, promotes many of the same legal standards noted in the Law of Nations. For
instance, the Fifth Amendment promises all U.S. citizens the right to due process of law.)
VI.
Slavery in the Roman Empire (page 71)
A.
No people relied on slavery as much as the Romans. As Rome conquered the
Mediterranean area, large numbers of war captives were brought to Italy as slaves.
Greeks were prized as tutors, musicians, doctors, and artists. Slaves worked in
shops, made crafts, and performed household tasks such as cleaning and
gardening. Slaves also built roads and public buildings, and farmed large estates
of the wealthy.
B.
Conditions for slaves were often pitiful. One Roman writer argued that it was
cheaper to work slaves to death and replace them than to care for them.
C.
Some slaves revolted. The most famous slave revolt in Italy was led by the
gladiator Spartacus in 73 B.C. Seventy thousand slaves joined Spartacus and they
defeated several Roman armies before being defeated in 71 B.C. Spartacus was
killed and thousands of his followers were crucified.
Discussion Question
Crucifixion is a painful way to die and was a common form of execution in the ancient
world. The modern world often tries to execute by more humane methods, such as lethal
injection. Does a violent criminal, such as a murderer, deserve this consideration?
(Answers will vary. Answers should show an understanding of the relevant issues, such
as a) the rights a person gives up by acting illegally and b) those executing not wanting
to act in the same manner as the murderer.)
VII.
Daily Life in The City of Rome (pages 71-72)
A.
Rome had the largest population of any city in the empire, close to one million by
the time of Augustus. Rome was overcrowded and noisy. Wagons and carts were
banned from the streets during the day to ease the congestion.
B.
There was a great gulf between rich and poor. While the rich lived in comfortable
villas, the poor lived in apartment blocks called insulae. As tall as six stories,
these poorly constructed buildings often collapsed. Fires were a constant threat.
C.
High rents forced entire families to live in one room. The apartments did not have
any plumbing or central heating. These uncomfortable conditions caused many
Romans to spend most of their time outdoors in the street.
D.
Rome had unequaled public buildings—such as baths, temples, theaters, and
markets—but poverty remained a problem. Beginning with Augustus, the city's
two hundred thousand poor received free grain from the emperor.
E. Grand public spectacles entertained the people. Emperors often mounted these
spectacles as part of religious festivals. The festivals featured horse and chariot
races at the Circus Maximus, dramatic performances in theaters, and very popular
gladiatorial shows.
Discussion Question
Considering the living conditions in Rome, why might the emperors have found it politically
beneficial to entertain the people with elaborate spectacles? (Poverty and overcrowding were
major problems in ancient Rome. By providing "bread and circuses," the emperors could try to
distract the people from their problems and keep them from demanding reforms.)
VIII.
Roman Culture (page 72)
A.
Latin literature's high point was during the Age of Augustus.
B.
The most distinguished poet of the Augustan Age was Virgil, who wrote his epic
poem the Aeneid in honor of Augustus. The character Aeneas displays the virtues
of the ideal Roman—duty, piety, and loyalty. By establishing the Romans in Italy,
Aeneas started the city on its divine mission to rule the world.
C.
In the third and second centuries B.C., the Romans developed a taste for Greek
art. Greek statues adorned their cities and homes. Reproductions became popular.
Roman sculptors added realistic, even unpleasant, features to the idealized Greek
forms.
D.
The practical-minded Romans excelled in architecture. The Romans continued to
use Greek styles (colonnades and rectangular buildings) and created forms based
on curved lines: the dome, arch, and vault. They were the first people to use
concrete on a massive scale.
E.
The Romans were first-class engineers who built enduring roads, bridges, and
aqueducts. They built 50,000 miles of roads throughout the empire. Rome's many
aqueducts supplied one million people with water.
Discussion Question
The traits of duty, piety, and loyalty were highly prized by the ancient Romans. What
three traits would students choose to define the ideal American citizen? Is it even possible
to create such a definition in today's society? (Answers will vary. Students should
recognize that the traits that define an ideal citizen [a member of a group] may not be the
same as traits that define an ideal individual. For example, students may value piety in
an individual, but can the ideal citizen of a country that separates church and state also
be pious?)
The Emergence of Christianity (pages 72-73)
A.
By A.D. 6, Judaea, which covered the lands of the ancient kingdom of Judah, was
a Roman province under the direction of a procurator. Unrest was common in
Judaea, even among factions of Jews.
B.
Jesus, a Jew, began to preach in the midst of this conflict. Jesus taught that inner
transformation was more important than adhering to laws or rituals. Individuals
should follow the Golden Rule and treat others as they would like to be treated.
People should love God and love each other, treating all as neighbors. Jesus
taught the virtues that would be the basis of medieval Western civilization:
humility, charity, and love of others.
C.
The Judaean authorities turned Jesus over to the Romans because they feared he
might cause people to revolt against Rome. The procurator, Pontius Pilate,
ordered Jesus crucified. Followers of Jesus, however, believed he overcame death.
Many Jewish followers believed that Jesus was the Messiah, the long-expected
savior of Israel.
Discussion Question
How do the virtues promoted by Jesus compare to the virtues valued by the Roman
people? (Answers may vary. The idea that individuals should love others and show
humility could conflict with Roman military values and their quest to conquer other
peoples. However, some emperors did establish public programs that supported the idea
of helping and loving others in the community, especially the poor.)
X.
The Spread of Christianity (pages 73-74)
A.
Simon Peter was a prominent figure in early Christianity. Peter and the other
disciples taught that Jesus was the Savior and Son of God come to Earth to save
all people. Jesus' death had made up for people's sins and made salvation possible.
Individuals had only to accept Christ ("the anointed one") as their Savior to be
saved.
B.
Another prominent leader was Paul of Tarsus. Paul followed Jesus' command to
preach the gospel to both Jews and non-Jews, or Gentiles. He founded many
Christian communities in Asia Minor and along the Aegean Sea.
C.
After word spread that Jesus had overcome death, people converted in droves.
Only 60 days after his crucifixion, Jerusalem alone had ten thousand converts.
Christian teachings were passed down orally and some were preserved in writing
by Jesus' disciples and followers. Between A.D. 40 and 100, these writings
became the basis of the written Gospels ("the good news"). The Gospels tell of
Jesus' life and teachings, and form the basis of the New Testament, the second
part of the Christian Bible.
D. By 100, Christian churches had been established throughout the eastern empire
and parts of the western empire. Romans came to see Christianity as harmful to
the public order because Christians would not worship the Roman gods, an act of
treason. Christians believed in one God only and would not worship false gods or
the emperors for fear of endangering their salvation.
E. Roman persecution of Christians began under Nero (A.D. 54-68), who blamed
them for the fire that destroyed much of Rome. He subjected them to cruel deaths.
Discussion Question
Some people argue that to live fully one must be willing to die for something one believes in, as
some early Christians did. Would you die for a belief and, if so, what? Why? If not, why not?
(Answers will vary. Accept any relevant, thoughtful answers.)
XI.
The Triumph of Christianity (page 74)
A.
Roman persecution strengthened Christianity by forcing it to become more
organized. The emerging control of bishops over Christian communities was an
important part of this change. The Christian Church created a new structure in
which the clergy (church leaders) were distinct from the laity (everyday church
members).
B.
Christianity attracted many followers. First, it was more personal than the Roman
religion and offered eternal life and salvation. Second, it gave people a sense of
belonging to a community. Third, Christianity appealed to every class and was
especially attractive to the poor and powerless. Every individual, regardless of
status, could gain salvation.
C.
Christianity prospered in the fourth century. Constantine became the first
Christian emperor. In 313 his Edict of Milan proclaimed official toleration of
Christianity. Under Theodosius the Great, the Romans adopted Christianity as
their official religion.
Discussion Question
Why do you think the Romans eventually decreed Christianity their official religion?
(Answers will vary. Accept relevant, thoughtful answers. One good answer is that they
saw how influential Christianity had already become in the empire. Another is that they
were persuaded by the Christian promise of salvation.)
XII.
The Decline (pages 74-75)
A.
A long period of civil wars, political disorder, and economic decline followed the
death of the last good emperor, Marcus Aurelius, in A.D. 180. At the end of the
third and the beginning of the fourth centuries, the emperors Diocletian and
Constantine revived Rome, founding a state called the Late Roman Empire. This
state had a new governmental structure, a rigid economic and social system, and a
new religion—Christianity.
B.
Diocletian ruled from 284 to 305. Believing the empire was too large for only one
ruler, he divided the empire into four sections, each with its own ruler.
Diocletian's military power gave him ultimate authority over the other three
rulers. Constantine, who ruled from 306 to 337, extended many of Diocletian's
policies.
C.
Both emperors expanded the bureaucracy and enlarged the army to five hundred
thousand troops. Their expansion of the civil service and the military drained the
treasury. More money was needed, but the lack of population growth meant that
the tax base could not be increased. To preserve the existing tax base, the
emperors issued edicts forcing people to stay in their assigned jobs.
D.
By 324, Constantine was the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. His biggest project
was building a new capital city in the east on the site of Byzantium on the shores
of the Bosporus. Constantine filled his "New Rome" with a forum, large palaces,
and an amphitheater. Constantinople would become the center of the Eastern
Roman Empire and one of the world's greatest cities.
E.
The policies of Diocletian and Constantine were based on control and coercion. In
the long run, they stifled the vitality that the empire needed to survive.
Discussion Question
Although it became one of the world's grandest cities, Constantine originally founded
Constantinople for defensive purposes. Look at a world map and explain why
Constantinople (modern Istanbul) is in an important strategic military position. (People at
that site can control the waterway through the Black Sea from Russia and Asia to the
Mediterranean Sea.)
XIII.
The Fall (page 76)
A.
The empire restored by Diocletian and Constantine continued for another
hundredplus years. It was divided into two parts and had two capitals, Rome in
the west and Constantinople in the east.
B. In the second half of the fourth century, Huns from Asia moved into eastern
Europe and put pressure on the German Visigoths. The Visigoths moved south,
crossing the Danube River into Roman territory. Initially Roman allies, the
Visigoths revolted and defeated a Roman army in 378.
C. More Germans crossed into Roman lands. In 410 the Visigoths sacked the city of
Rome. In 455 another group called the Vandals also sacked the city. Our modern
word vandal comes from the name of this ruthless tribe. In 476 the western
emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic head of the army.
This event is usually used to mark the end of the Western Roman Empire. The
Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, however, continued to thrive.
Discussion Question
Many theories have been proposed to explain the fall of the Roman Empire: Christianity
weakened Rome's military virtues; Roman values declined as non-Italians gained prominent
positions; lead poisoning from water pipes and vessels caused a mental decline; slavery hindered
Roman technological advancement; Rome's political system proved unworkable. Which of these
explanations of Rome's fall seems most plausible? (Answers will vary. Accept answers that are
able to weigh the effects of various influences and give reasons for ranking the influences.)