Download Living shorelines as a tool to mitigate Sea level rise

Climate change impact on Egyptian shorelines
Living shorelines as a tool to mitigate Sea level rise
Rasha Sayed Mahmoud, [email protected]
Abstract
Over the last decades, the world has been facing a group of challenges and crisis. Problems
like droughts, gradual loss of natural resources, land deformation and sea level rise, are
stressing strongly on lands on urban scale. In Egypt, as one of the most vulnerable countries
to climate change impact, the Nile Delta soon will be threatened by the SEA LEVEL RISE
Phenomenon.
Scientific studies, such as managing realignment of urban settlement and offshore live flora
and fauna, are targeting futuristic development assessment.
In this paper, a framework will be introduced offering tangible solutions in tide timeline and
addressing different development possibilities of shorelines and off-shorelines architecture
with their local communities’ involvement in the design and implementation process.
Authors intend to identify the problem of dynamic urban planning and architectural design,
which face the majority of coastal communities that suffer from similar problems, hazards
and natural crisis. The outcome of the framework synthesize will be in the form of design
guidelines and standard framework that match with Egypt’s shorelines and communities.
Keywords: Shorelines, Dynamic urban planning, Land deformation, Coastal vulnerability,
Environmental adaptation.
INTRODUCTION
Egypt, with its flat delta and its different red sea and Mediterranean shorelines in different
climatic zones, reshape and reorient together the effect of global warming. Impacts and
vulnerabilities on Egyptian landscape, especially shorelines, would cause severe changes on
all social, economic, urban and environmental levels. Food resources, agriculture, land use,
climatic conditions and economy would have dangerous and destructive effects. As urban
planners and designers, we should be able to translate and introduce different solutions and
mitigation plans and give other alternatives rather than immigration.
Coastal cities and shoreline will be the first destroyed resources and change in the land use.
Therefore, as planners, we should find other alternatives to reorient land use in order to find
new functions that produce the fundamentals for people and preserve the sustainable
conditions for lands. Urban design, energy consumption, sustainable development and urban
environment are the main mitigation tools for global warming impact on landscape and land
use differentiation.
METHODOLOGY
In this paper, the process of discussing the problem and finding some solutions went through
next steps:
• Discussing the causes of the problem globally
• Impact of climate change on Egypt
• Costal architecture mitigation with SLR
• Sustainable communities
• Urban development
1- BACKGROUND ON SEA LEVEL RISE IMPACT ON EGYPTIAN
SHORELINES
Climate change is the result of a significant rise in global average temperature. This will
predictably lead to reducing food yields, water shortage, rise in the sea level to an extent that
will threaten many major cities, species extinction, extreme weather, and ultimately abrupt
and large scale changes in global climate. These changes are likely to bring enormous social
and economical upheaval.
For cities, landscape and according to its planning strategies, the most important key
vulnerability of climate change, which will effect heavily on landscape are:
1- Sea level rise and over flow
2- Greenhouse effect and global high temperature
3- Carbon dioxide
4- Land use and landform transformation according to the variables and changes going
to happen like water transformation.
5- Transformation according to the variables and changes going to happen like water
transformation.
Vulnerabilities cause threats like salinity increase of the river, sweet water, and soil for
increase the evaporation rate, this will effect on
- Agriculture, high temperature and CO2 will effect of course on water quality as well
quantity
- air pollution will be increased, and heat Waves and Milder Winters will be raised
- Land use and land use change.
- Water deformation and transformation
- Agriculture, fishing, and aquaculture
- Soil infection, deformation, and transformation
- Biodiversity and habitats
- Recourses and energy
All of these will effect on different ways and later will increase from different problems that
already exist like increase of Food Security, Social Dislocation, and Infectious Diseases.
Global warming
Natural causes: Greenhouse
gasemissions, fuel-burning
increase
Human actions: the increase of gas
burning and unwanted gases in air
Disruption of thermal equilibrium of the earth
Global warming
Sea level rise
Extinction some races
Drought
Figure 1: shows causes of the climate change (Author)
Energy consumption
Several general analyses of the potential impact of sea level rise on the Nile DeltaImpact of
climate change on Egypt:
- Domestic physical impacts of global warming
 Water resources
 Agricultural and food Resources
 Coastal Zones
a- Sea Level Rise
b- Change of Precipitation, Wind Velocity and Heat Waves
c- Socio-economic impact on coastal settlements
 Coral reefs
 Mangrove habitats
 The oasis and its ecological system
- Regional Impacts
In addition to its local impacts, climate change over Egypt has secondary regional impacts,
which also affect the international community. These include:
1. The rise in temperature increases soil erosion and wind speed, which in turn increases
amount of Saharan dust carried across the Mediterranean to European countries
causing health and economic problems.
2. Increased unemployment increases immigration pressure on other countries.
3. Decrease of water resources increases friction among countries sharing the same
water resources for example. Nile and Euphrates, and leads to political unrest.
4. The rise in temperature and humidity increase rates of deterioration of Egyptian
archaeological treasures which are considered among the most important in the world.
In conclusion, the impacts and vulnerabilities that will be most effective on Egyptian
landscape and urban features will be as follows:
-Heat Waves and Mild Winters
-Green house effect and global high temperature, and CO2 will affect on water
quality as well quantity.
-Changes in the frequency, timing, and duration of heat waves will affect
agricultural yields, and increase number and variety of insect pests. Increases in
temperature will lead to increased soil erosion and dust.
-Increased dust has direct adverse impacts on health, installations, and equipment.
Increased wind speed encourages sand dune movements and threatens coastal
infrastructure.
-Increased humidity and temperature decrease the human comfort zone, and
reduce human productivity.
-Increasing temperature increases soil erosion and wind speed, which in turn
increases amount of Saharan dust carried across the Mediterranean to European
countries causing health and economic problems.
-Increases in airborne dust levels
Pollution:
-The population in the coastal zone is distributed by a number of highly populated
economic centers with a tendency to grow at high rates due to immigration from
rural areas.
-The air pollution will be increased
-Loss of resources, habitats and biodiversity with particular emphasis on northern
lagoons
Land
use, -High rate of population growth
population and -Land subsidence
Temperature
increasing:
tourism:
-Land use and landform transformation according to the variations and changes
that are going to happen like water transformation.
-The continuous increase of human activities in the coastal zone has led to severe
problems of pollution due to dumping of industrial, agricultural, and domestic
wastewater at several sites on the coast or in lakes, which will eventually reach
the sea.
-Degradation, and lack of appropriate institutional management systems
-Implications of land subsidence on urbanization, and archaeological sites
-Lack of awareness among the majority of population in these areas
-Improper catchments and change of precipitation patterns will lead to a loss of
water in coastal areas.
-Increased vulnerability of slum areas to wind and flood damage, and increased
frequency of floods and fires in rural, some and urban, areas. Settlements built in
the path of old stream torrents will be particularly vulnerable.
-The shortage of water resources and increase salinity will increase vulnerability
of livestock and loss of grazing sites.
-Inundation and saltwater intrusion will compel a significant proportion of the
coastal zone population to abandon their land and homes.
-Loss of beaches will reduce the number of tourists in coastal areas, forcing
tourism dependent individuals and communities to abandon their settlements and
look for jobs elsewhere.
-Increased saltwater intrusion will affect the management and access to
archaeological sites, reduce tourism, and result in socio-economic impacts on the
inhabitants of these areas.
-Increased unemployment will induce political and civil unrest.
-Increased unemployment will increase immigration pressure on other countries.
-Increased water logging and salinity will give rise to insect and pest problems,
which in turn causes health problems.
-Decrease of water resources will increases friction among countries sharing the
same water resources for example Nile and Euphrates, and will lead to political
unrest.
Water, Sea level -Sea level rise and over flow, Sea level rise will increase occurrence of saline
rise,
and intrusion with contamination of groundwater resources in the coastal zone.
-Excessive erosion rates
Erosion:
-Water logging
-Salt-water intrusion and domestic use decreases water quality.
-Increase the salinity of the river and sweet water.
-Increase the salinity in the soil for the increase the evaporation rate, and this will
effect on the agriculture.
-Erosion and accretion problems exist at several spots. Its origin lies in the
cessation of silt reaching the Mediterranean coast with the construction of Aswan
High Dam to store the water of Nile River floods, over a thousand kilometers to
the south.
-Changes in the ecological system of lakes will reduce fishing and push out away
a large portion of fishermen and their dependants.
-Changes of the agricultural distribution of crops will be induced as result of
Agricultural,
Fishing
and change in average temperature will induce.
-Shortage of water resources will also force farmers to abandon marginal land,
aquaculture
and increase desertification.
-Increase of temperature will lead directly to the increases of losses by
evaporation and demands for water in agricultural domestic and industrial
applications increase.
-Increase of temperature and frequency or variation in extreme events will reduce
crop yield, because of being, some crops are more tolerant than others are.
-Increase of temperature will negatively affect marginal land, which led to
abandon farmers for their lands.
-Land productivity will obviously decrease because of saltwater intrusion and
water logging.
2- IMPACT ON EGYPTIAN COASTAL ZONES
The vulnerability of coastal zones used to be defined as: the degree of incapability to cope
with the consequences of climate change and accelerated sea-level rise. Thus,
vulnerability assessment includes the assessment of both anticipated impacts and available
adaptation options. Several general analyses of the potential impact of sea level rise on the
Nile Delta
- These high-risk areas include parts of Alexandria and Behaira governorates, Port
Said and Damietta governorates, and Suez governorate. In addition, several other
smaller areas, such as those near Matruh and north of Lake Bardwell, have also
been identified.
- A scenario of sea level rise (SLR) of 0.5m, 1.0m, and 2.0m, over the next century
was assumed. Analysis of the GIS data for the three scenarios indicates the
capability of the technique to map vulnerable areas and to assess quantitatively
vulnerable sectors in each area each scenario.
- Some of landscape changes happen on the long term, as landscape architect we
must start to think about this change and how to face it or adapt with from now,
and find new trends with solutions on the long-term affect taking into
consideration all the variables that could face us as the challenge of adaptation
methods.
- Sea Level Rise
Several general analyses of the potential impact of sea level rise on Nile Delta coast have
been carried out; as a result, areas of high vulnerability in the Nile delta and possible socioeconomic impacts have been generally defined. These high-risk areas include parts of
Alexandria, Behaira, Port Said Damietta, and Suez governorates. In addition, several other
small areas such as those near Matruh and north of Lake Bardwell have also been identified.
A scenario of sea level rise (SLR) of
0.5m, 1.0m, and 2.0m, over the next
century was assumed. Analysis of the
GIS data for the three scenarios
indicates the capability of the
technique to map vulnerable areas and
to quantitatively assess vulnerable
sectors in each area of each scenario.
Figure 2: Potential direct impact of
the Nile Delta to SLR (Fitzgerald et
al., 2008)
- Change of Precipitation, Wind Velocity, and Heat Waves:
The coastal zone will also be subjected to the impact of changes in precipitation, wind
velocity, and heat wave patterns. No assessment of the vulnerability of the coastal zones or
inland areas to this impact is available for Egypt nor is there any reliable model for
prediction. (3) However, the following impacts are expected to have a greater or a lesser
degree:
1. The increased vulnerability of slum areas to wind and flood damage, and
increased frequency of floods and fires in some rural, and urban areas.
Settlements built in the path of old stream torrents will be particularly
vulnerable.
2. Increase vulnerability of lives stock and loss of grazing sites due to water
shortage.
3. The changes in the frequency, timing, and duration of heat waves will affect
agricultural yields, and increase number and variety of insect pests.
3- COASTAL ARCHITECTURE MITIGATION WITH SEA LEVEL RISE
Division of zones on coastal shorelines enable urban planners to understand each factor
threatenthe flora and fauna in terms of urban planning and architecture design principles.
Sustainable design and environmental planning is the main course of mitigation with the
impacts and vulnerabilities.
The most important aspects of this definition are dynamic, function, habitat, and processes.
- Dynamic, implies variable and changing.
- Function is aggregated in inherent ecological value that includes wave sediment, flora,
fauna interactions at the shore, offshore, and downstream of the eroding area.
- Habitat includes the water-land interface (sediment size, water exchange, flora, and
faunal interactions) that permit use of the shore by a suite of bay plants and animals.
- Processes refer to the hydrology, chemistry, and biotic activities that typify this fluid
water-land interface.
Salt water ( zone A):
-
That areas with excessive water, attached to offshore shelf and over flood areas that
vulnerable to sediment, corrosion, corruption and erosion. This dynamic zone, in, which
implies variable and changing.
wetland habitat & freshwater ( zone B):
-
In which areas threatened with salinity and destruction of infrastructure and habitat. Wetland
here could present as the defense line.
Ridge, uplands, and cities ( zone c):
-
Ridge and uplands are the most highly secured parts
of cities, which have backward people community.
In which have the main activity of day life, and most
of the investments. As e.g. Figure 6
Figure 3: shows coastal area (Alexandria) with
concrete blocks as protection for sea shore.
Over flood areas
that vulnerable
to sediment,
corrosion,
corruption and
erosion
Areas
threatened with
salinity and
destruction of
infrastructure
and habitat
defense line
People
community
backward
which have
the main
activity of
day life
Figure 4: shows different Division of zones on coastal shorelines (Author)
In Egypt, architecture on coastal lines has different categories, but more than 70% of these
shorelines go to the touristic functions for the use of Mediterranean and red sea water. For
delta shorelines, which close to seawater, most of them also have, the same functions but
others could be used frequently as fishing national water. Therefore, in these areas the
housing units are too near by the fishing boats, as these housing units have the same degree of
danger that could damage complete villages as in figure 4.
Figure 5: coastal housing units
SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES ON COASTAL SHORELINES
In order to understand the sensitivity of coastal cities for terms like global warming,
sustainable development, and mitigation to change, some common vulnerability factors must
be taken into deep consideration, these factors include:
- coastal location
- exposure to the urban heat island effect
- high levels of outdoor and indoor air pollution
- high population density
- poor sanitation
All these factors should be addressed. There are clear opportunities for improving health and
cutting down gas emissions most obviously through policies related to transportation systems,
urban planning, building regulations, and household energy supply.
Sustainable design of Urban Spatial structure with the orientation of climate adaptation is
effective in the reduction of greenhouse gasses emission. Since urban spatial structure as a
base of spatial development determines the energy use andCO2 emission of a city, as it
determines the physical space form of the city and deeply affects the modes of socioeconomic activities.
Transportation and residential sectors are responsible for more than 16% and 7% of
greenhouse gas emissions in under developed countries, while these sectors in developed
countries have 25% and 9%. Transportation is the most producer and responsible factor of
greenhouse effect in the cities in both developed and under developed countries. So the
emphasize is on road transport as it contributes 93% of all domestic emissions from transport
(DfT, 2007), and its possibilities to act also like underground sewer for excessive water. The
well-designed pattern can considerably effects the GHG emissions.
- Transportation
- residential sector
- Energy/general industries
- Manufacture and Construction
Therefore, urban spatial planning determines:
- Spatial structure.
- Energy consumption.
- CO2 emission of a city.
This translate that the density of land uses in the coastal urban corridors has an important role
in sustainable development of these areas as for to mitigate with the impact of global
changes. The main traffic corridors are responsible for main elements of linear urban spatial
structures. On the other hand, in coastal cities, the main streets are the keys to clean the air by
the suitable direction that causes the flow of coastal winds.
Figure 6:shows the four main elements of sustainable communities(Author)
Traffic and linear corridors are not just the indicators of sustainable urban design; there are
other factors that affect directly and indirectly the ecological system. Then increase or
decrease from global warming and climate change.
City is a complex system that has many inner relations; therefore, the systematic design of
spatial structure is the basic step for spatial sustainability. Creating rational relation between
social, economical, and physical activities would lead to spatial sustainability. All these
human activities are in the form of the strategic systematic elements, including urban zones,
corridors, and nodes in urban spatial organization. It is important to consider these main
elements to create sustainable composition of urban cities
-
Zones (like residential, commercial and green spaces)
- Urban corridors (like transportation systems)
- Urban nodes (like city and neighborhood centers)
Sustainable development is multidimensional. It has too many complex systems and oftenconflicting relationships, which require an understanding, which require an integrated
approach and an integration culture. City is a mosaic of different neighborhoods with
different functions, qualities, problems, and opportunities.
Figure 7:shows the four main
elements of sustainable
communities(Author)
CONCLUSION
The problem of the global
warming is becoming one of
the most problems that will
have a major effect on the
whole world. Sea level rise on a
scale that will threaten many
major cities, species extinction,
extreme weather, and ultimately, abrupt and large scale changes in global climate.
As landscape architects, we must start to think about this change and how to face it or adapt
with from now, and find new trends with solutions on the long-term effect taking into
consideration all the variables that could face us as the challenge of adaptation methods.


Many districts in Egypt will be affected by the sea rise at the shoreline
There is many solution could be taken to mitigate the effect of the sea rise
1.
Governmental interface
2.
Citizens
Governmental interface is about the redevelopment of the urban planning and new regulation
that ensure the sustainable communities such as building materials, height, solar system and
etc. And on the citizens scale they should be aware of the climate change and how will it
affect the land and sticking to the regulations and try to reduce the energy that is been use As
e.g. Figure 8.
Climate change is caused by a number of things, and it will take an enormous amount of
concerted effort to fix it. It involves thinkers, politicians, professionals, and the public.
Architects and engineers will have a major role to play in resolving the associated problems.
Redevelopment of sustainable housing:



Sustainable housing is the main key for the urban developing
There is strong relation between developing the inner city and the expansion of the
urban fabric
There are many aspects that should be considered in the development strategies such
as economical, social and ecological aspects.
Urban Energy:
 Reduction of up to 15% of energy consumption by utilizing appropriate construction
materials and technology.
 Thermal isolation, ventilation and distribution changing consumer habits can
significantly reduce consumption costs.
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