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Running Head: APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES Applying Psychological Theories to Personal Experience Emily Jensen PSYCH 101: Introduction to Psychology December 11, 2015 Dr. Mary Jo Zygmond 1 APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 2 Applying Psychological Theories to Personal Experience Section 1: Introduction Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Carl Rogers, Carl Jung. This list is a list of ‘the greats’ in the history of psychology. But what makes them so great? It is their perspectives and theories about human behavior. These theories can apply to each of us, as all individuals grow and experience problems. Throughout this paper, one can expect to find a description of a personal behavior I have been facing that I want to change, a thorough explanation of four psychologists’ theories on behavior, and an application of one of these theories to my personal issue. A personal behavior that I have faced in my life that I would like to change about myself is the initial shyness I feel around people. When I am around people that I’ve never met I get really shy and do not talk, or if I do talk I am awkward. I would like to change this about myself because first impressions are a big deal in today’s world, and the first impression that someone might get of me is very different from the real person I am. I am not very quiet, and in fact once someone gets to know me, I am a very outgoing person. I am someone who likes to have fun, be crazy, and do lots of different activities. But, for some reason, when I first am introduced to others, I crawl into my shell and am quiet. This has had a negative effect in my life because, at times, it has prevented me from meeting new people who could be really good friends. Throughout my life I have had experiences where I have really regretted not getting the nerve to talk to someone more, because I knew that they would have been a really fun friend. But, my shyness has prevented me from talking to him/her. This also has hindered me in interviews for job and school. In school, I would have loved to be part of clubs of all sorts, but because signing up for these clubs always APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 3 happened at the beginning of the year, I was too shy to sign up. Because of my shyness, I neglected being in clubs and building that pattern of living for me for when I grew older. This has caused a hindrance in my life today, because now as I try to apply for colleges and jobs, I have to fight the urge to be shy. Section 2: Theories While there have been many theories concerning why people behave the way they do, this paper will specifically focus on four psychologists and their theories. The four psychologists and their theories are B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning, Carl Roger’s client-centered therapy, Albert Ellis’ rational emotive behavioral therapy, and Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytical theory. For each of these theories, the topics of assumptions/predispositions underlying the theory, main concepts, and the view that the theorists had on individuals (i.e. how problems develop and if/how individuals change). Theory One The second theorist to be discussed is B.F Skinner and his theory of operant conditioning. In order for Skinner’s theory to work, an individual must be able to remember what is being taught to them. If an anomaly is present in the individual that causes him/her to not remember the consequences given, then this theory would not have the capacity to function (Weiss, S. J., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. 2014, page 517). Skinner’s theory is based mainly on the components of reinforcement and punishment. An individual will learn and adapt its behavior based on these reinforcements and punishments. A reinforcement refers to any stimuli that promotes the behavior and increase the chances of the behavior occurring again. Punishment refers to any stimuli that decreases the chances of the behavior repeating itself. Skinner also proposed that these reinforcements/punishments could be APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 4 positive of negative. If a reinforcement/punishment were positive, then a stimuli would be added according to the result wanted of either increasing or decreasing the behavior occurring again. Meaning, if an individual wanted to give a positive punishment, he/she would add a stimuli that would decrease the behavior wanting to reoccur. If an individual wanted to give a positive reinforcement, he/she would add a stimuli that would increase the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. Oppositely, if a reinforcement/punishment were negative, then a stimuli would be subtracted according to the result wanted (Spielman R.M et al. 2014, page 12). In their article discussing Skinner’s theory, Winters and Wallace stated that the response rates to these stimuli and the magnitude of the reinforcement were “directly and perfectly related” (Winters, L. C., & Wallace, W. H. 1970, page 43). This means that the better the stimuli for the individual, the faster he/she will respond to said stimuli. Skinner proposed that individuals were affected greatly be these stimuli presented before them. In fact, he proposed that these stimuli were involved with how individuals developed problems, and how the change. As a stimuli is continuously given to an individual, “the suppression or inhibition that keeps the behavior flexible is overcome – making the behavior more stereotyped” (Weiss, S. J., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. 2014, page 517). This means that as one is given a stimuli over and over, the behavior is well-learned and to change to a different behavior is difficult to learn. This could potentially cause major problems in individuals, if they are given stimuli that encourages them to do things that will bring them harm. However, change is possible for the individual. Behavior is changed as stimuli is given repetitively over and over again. This act of continual stimuli to the behavior is in fact more effective than the actual stimuli itself (Weiss, S. J., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. 2014, page 518). Theory Two APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 5 The first theorist that will be examined will be Carl Rogers and his theory of clientcentered therapy. In Roger’s theory, the client has to have the capability of looking ‘inside’ themselves to see problems that are hopefully to be solved. A client also feels that they are missing something in their life, despite all that they have put into and built in his/her life. They feel incomplete. Individuals also have an innate ability to be creative which can lead to healing, as will be seen later (Sanyal, N. 2011, para 51). The main point of Rogers’ theory is helping a client to reach the point of selfactualization, or knowing ones’ self. Rogers’ believed that the key to happiness for everyone is simply inside us all, we just have to find it. In his theory, the client comes first and he/she determines how therapy sessions go. In order for a client to reach self-actualization, they must take the creativity innately invested in his/herself and express how they feel. This leads to selfacknowledgement. Part of this process is delving into feelings and emotions, which allows to feel the connection between our inner core and the way we feel. As we begin to understand this process, we learn to self-actualize (Sanyal, N. 2011,page 51). However, this process needs to place in a loving environment, where there is unconditional positive regard. In order for this process to run smoothly, the client must never feel judged and must feel that the therapist empathizes with him/her. The client discovering answering (via subliminal help from the therapist) is also an important therapeutic process that helps the client to reach self-actualization (Rogers, C. 1946, para 28). In Rogers’ opinion, the three most important attributes that a therapist held in order to help a client in client-centered therapy are being genuine, having complete acceptance, and feeling empathy for the client (Sanyal, N. 2011, page 52). Rogers believed that people developed problems when parts of the inner-self are missing. Nilanjana Sanyal shared a good analogy of this in her article discussing Rogers’ theory. Sanyal APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 6 compared the self to the interior design of a home. Everything has its place and the home looks nice when everything is there. The same is with the interior of a person. If everything is present and in its place, then a person will be happy. But, if something is missing or out of place problems will arise within the person (2011, page 50). However, Rogers’ also stated that change will and can take place in an individual when the individual decides that he or she wants to change. The individual must also see the potential inside his/herself to make the change (Rogers, C. 1946, para 30-31). Theory Three The next theorist is Albert Ellis. Albert Ellis proposed a theory known as rational emotive behavioral therapy. For Ellis’ theory to function correctly, an individual must be able to perceive events that occur in life and tie these events together. An individual must also have the capability to evaluate and make perceptions of the world they are in (Levinson M.H 2010, page 55). For the therapy part of Ellis’ theory, an individual must be able to look at his/her own life in a third person point of view. Albert Ellis’ main component of his theory is his ABC model. This model shows Ellis’ perspective on behavior—that individual’s emotions are based on constructed views of life. This means that events don’t just occur and we react, but rather that we perceive the event in a certain way, and then react. In Ellis’ ABC model, A represents the event that occurs, B is the belief or cognition about the event, and then finally C is the feeling or consequence towards that event. In an article written by Norbert Johnson, this model is explained through an example about a man who does not get a job promotion. The event of this man not receiving a promotion would be A, the event that occurs. Most people in this scenario would be frustrated. According to Ellis’ theory, the cause of this upset would not be the event (A) but rather the view or perception (B) APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 7 toward the lack of promotion. These feelings of being upset would be the C part of the ABC model (1980, page 49). Another part of Ellis’ model was that if an individual’s belief system was irrational, then so was the perception that he/she took on the world. Some of these irrational ways of thinking are all-or-nothing thinking, overgeneralization, and jumping to conclusions. An all-or-nothing thinker believes that in a situation, there’s either one outcome or the other— it’s black and white, with no gray. An individual who overgeneralizes his/her thinking is takes a small situation and turns it into a much bigger one. An individual that jumps to conclusions makes biased conclusions based on events that happened, even though those conclusions might not be right. Ellis believed that these ways of thinking lead to psychological issues the individual would have to face. Ellis believed that individuals developed problems through what Levinson referred to as “is of identity” and “is of prediction” (Levinson M.H 2010, pages 56-57). ‘Is of identity’ refers to when individuals classify themselves in categories (i.e. “I am a student”). While this may seem harmless, we end up tricking our minds into believing that is the only category in which we belong. This leads to a loss of one’s self. ‘Is of prediction’ is when you apply the same thinking to others (i.e. “She is a student”), which can lead to thinking of others solely in that category. Ellis also believed that individuals can change, but it is only through changing of the individual’s perspective and way they refer to his/her self or others that change will occur (Levinson M.H 2010, pages 56-57). Theory Four The final theorist that will be discussed is Sigmund Freud and his psychoanalytical theory. Some prepositions to Sigmund Freud’s theory are that unconscious behaviors control our behavior, our behavior is affected by our childhood, and, in dream analysis, recalled dreams are APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 8 in a façade behind which meaning must be inferred. In order for this theory to be comprehended, one must understand these prepositions. In Freud’s psychoanalytical theory, a person’s personality or psychic structure consist of three parts: the id, the superego, and the ego. The id is the part of the psyche that comprises everything that is inherited, present at birth, and instincts every individual possesses. These instincts are split into two categories: Eros, or love instinct, and the death instinct. The love instinct seeks to build and establish unity. The death instinct seeks to undo unity (Beystehner, K. 2001, para 8). The superego limits satisfaction and represents the influence of society and those around you. The ego is what controls the id and the superego, and is the link between the id and the external life. The ego also becomes aware of stimuli, and reacts to this stimuli either through adaptation or flight. The ego also regulates activity, maximizing pleasure and avoiding scenarios that aren’t pleasurable (Beystehner, K. 2001, para 8). Freud stated that we develop our personality and possible problems as we go through the main phases of sexual life. These phases are the oral, anal, phallic, latency period, and genital stage. It is during these stages that problems may arise, which will later arise through either conscious, preconscious, or unconscious states. A conscious state is one where the individual is aware of what is occurring, but Freud stated that this consciousness only occurred briefly. A preconscious state is a state that is capable of becoming conscious, but is not at that time. Lastly, unconsciousness is a state that is not easily accessible but can be recognized and explained through analysis (Beystehner, K. 2001, para 11). Freud believed the id to be completely unconscious, the superego to be unconscious and conscious, and the ego to be the most conscious part of the psyche (Segrist, D.J. 2009, page 51). APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 9 Freud believed that individuals developed problems due to unconscious factors that can lead to produce unhappiness, which can be exhibited through undesired actions or traits (Beystehner, K. 2001 para 1). Problems can also arise if the id and the superego are not in balance. If an individual has a stronger id, the person will be selfish. If the individual has a more dominant superego, the individual will be guilt-ridden (Segrist, D.J. 2009, page 53). Freud also believed that individuals can change, but that this change is very hard to achieve and takes many years to occur. While change is not common in individuals, it does occur (Beystehner, K. 2001 para 14). Section 3: Application of a Theory to Personal Issue The theory that I feel best applies to my personal issue of being shy is Albert Ellis’ theory of rational emotive behavioral therapy. This theory best applies to my case because the action of meeting new people can be perceived differently for different individuals because of their personal experiences in life. My personal perception of meeting new people is that meeting new people is scary. This leads to me being afraid to talk to new people and eventually avoiding the whole situation in the first place. To find the cause of this, one must look at the origins of where this perception may have come from. When I was a child, my mother always to me to not talk to strangers. As a child, a stranger came to be anyone whom I did not know personally. My mind thought irrationally, and I jumped to conclusions that I shouldn’t talk to strangers because they are scary. This same concept has followed me throughout my life. I see individuals who I do not know personally as strangers. This means that the first few times that I talk with a person, he or she is a stranger until I have securely made that connection in my mind that I really know and can trust that person. It takes multiple meetings with people for me to feel comfortable around them and not see them as ‘scary’ like I did when I was a child. In order for me to change this APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 10 reaction that I have towards new people, I will have to change my perception towards individuals that I do not know. It is only through this application of the theory that I could solve this problem, in Ellis’ eyes and I agree that his theory is the best one that is congruent with helping my problem. Section 4: Conclusion As seen in this paper, there have been many theories on behavior that have been discussed over the years. As these theories are applied to our lives at different times for different situations, we will begin to develop our own sense for which theory is best for us. It is through this application that we begin to learn how to apply psychology into our lives and maybe one day become ‘a great’ ourselves. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 11 References Beystehner, K. (2001). Psychoanalysis: Freud’s revolutionary approach to human personality. SAPA Project Test. Johnson, N. (1980). Must the rational emotive therapist be like Albert Ellis?. Personnel & Guidance Journal, 59(1), 49. Levinson M. H. (2010). Alfred Korzybski and rational emotive behavior therapy. ETC: A Review of General Semantics, 67(1), 55-63. Rogers, C. (1946). Significatn aspects of client-centered therapy. Classics in the History of Psychology. 1(1), 415-422. Sanyal, N. (2011). Client-centered therapy: The interior decorator of mind. Amity Journal of Applied Psychology, 2(1), 49-53. Segrist, D. J. (2009). What's going on in your professor's head: Demonstrating the id, ego, and superego. Teaching Of Psychology, 36(1), 51-54. Spielman, R.M., Dumper, K., Jenkins, W., Lacombe, A., Lovette, M., Perlmutter, M., (2014). Psychology. Houston, TX: OpenStax Weiss, S. J., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. (2014). Introduction to the special issue on operant/classical conditioning: Comparisons, intersections and interactions. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 27(4), 515-525. Winters, L. C., & Wallace, W. H. (1970). On operant conditioning techniques. Journal of Advertising Research, 10(5), 39-45. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 12