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Running Head: APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Applying Psychological Theories to Personal Experience
Emily Jensen
PSYCH 101: Introduction to Psychology
December 11, 2015
Dr. Mary Jo Zygmond
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Applying Psychological Theories to Personal Experience
Section 1: Introduction
Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Carl Rogers, Carl Jung. This list is a list of ‘the greats’ in
the history of psychology. But what makes them so great? It is their perspectives and theories
about human behavior. These theories can apply to each of us, as all individuals grow and
experience problems. Throughout this paper, one can expect to find a description of a personal
behavior I have been facing that I want to change, a thorough explanation of four psychologists’
theories on behavior, and an application of one of these theories to my personal issue.
A personal behavior that I have faced in my life that I would like to change about myself
is the initial shyness I feel around people. When I am around people that I’ve never met I get
really shy and do not talk, or if I do talk I am awkward. I would like to change this about myself
because first impressions are a big deal in today’s world, and the first impression that someone
might get of me is very different from the real person I am. I am not very quiet, and in fact once
someone gets to know me, I am a very outgoing person. I am someone who likes to have fun, be
crazy, and do lots of different activities. But, for some reason, when I first am introduced to
others, I crawl into my shell and am quiet.
This has had a negative effect in my life because, at times, it has prevented me from
meeting new people who could be really good friends. Throughout my life I have had
experiences where I have really regretted not getting the nerve to talk to someone more, because
I knew that they would have been a really fun friend. But, my shyness has prevented me from
talking to him/her. This also has hindered me in interviews for job and school. In school, I
would have loved to be part of clubs of all sorts, but because signing up for these clubs always
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happened at the beginning of the year, I was too shy to sign up. Because of my shyness, I
neglected being in clubs and building that pattern of living for me for when I grew older. This
has caused a hindrance in my life today, because now as I try to apply for colleges and jobs, I
have to fight the urge to be shy.
Section 2: Theories
While there have been many theories concerning why people behave the way they do,
this paper will specifically focus on four psychologists and their theories. The four psychologists
and their theories are B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning, Carl Roger’s client-centered therapy,
Albert Ellis’ rational emotive behavioral therapy, and Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytical theory.
For each of these theories, the topics of assumptions/predispositions underlying the theory, main
concepts, and the view that the theorists had on individuals (i.e. how problems develop and
if/how individuals change).
Theory One
The second theorist to be discussed is B.F Skinner and his theory of operant conditioning.
In order for Skinner’s theory to work, an individual must be able to remember what is being
taught to them. If an anomaly is present in the individual that causes him/her to not remember
the consequences given, then this theory would not have the capacity to function (Weiss, S. J., &
Rosales-Ruiz, J. 2014, page 517).
Skinner’s theory is based mainly on the components of reinforcement and punishment.
An individual will learn and adapt its behavior based on these reinforcements and punishments.
A reinforcement refers to any stimuli that promotes the behavior and increase the chances of the
behavior occurring again. Punishment refers to any stimuli that decreases the chances of the
behavior repeating itself. Skinner also proposed that these reinforcements/punishments could be
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positive of negative. If a reinforcement/punishment were positive, then a stimuli would be added
according to the result wanted of either increasing or decreasing the behavior occurring again.
Meaning, if an individual wanted to give a positive punishment, he/she would add a stimuli that
would decrease the behavior wanting to reoccur. If an individual wanted to give a positive
reinforcement, he/she would add a stimuli that would increase the likelihood of the behavior
occurring again. Oppositely, if a reinforcement/punishment were negative, then a stimuli would
be subtracted according to the result wanted (Spielman R.M et al. 2014, page 12). In their article
discussing Skinner’s theory, Winters and Wallace stated that the response rates to these stimuli
and the magnitude of the reinforcement were “directly and perfectly related” (Winters, L. C., &
Wallace, W. H. 1970, page 43). This means that the better the stimuli for the individual, the
faster he/she will respond to said stimuli.
Skinner proposed that individuals were affected greatly be these stimuli presented before
them. In fact, he proposed that these stimuli were involved with how individuals developed
problems, and how the change. As a stimuli is continuously given to an individual, “the
suppression or inhibition that keeps the behavior flexible is overcome – making the behavior
more stereotyped” (Weiss, S. J., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. 2014, page 517). This means that as one is
given a stimuli over and over, the behavior is well-learned and to change to a different behavior
is difficult to learn. This could potentially cause major problems in individuals, if they are given
stimuli that encourages them to do things that will bring them harm. However, change is
possible for the individual. Behavior is changed as stimuli is given repetitively over and over
again. This act of continual stimuli to the behavior is in fact more effective than the actual
stimuli itself (Weiss, S. J., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. 2014, page 518).
Theory Two
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The first theorist that will be examined will be Carl Rogers and his theory of clientcentered therapy. In Roger’s theory, the client has to have the capability of looking ‘inside’
themselves to see problems that are hopefully to be solved. A client also feels that they are
missing something in their life, despite all that they have put into and built in his/her life. They
feel incomplete. Individuals also have an innate ability to be creative which can lead to healing,
as will be seen later (Sanyal, N. 2011, para 51).
The main point of Rogers’ theory is helping a client to reach the point of selfactualization, or knowing ones’ self. Rogers’ believed that the key to happiness for everyone is
simply inside us all, we just have to find it. In his theory, the client comes first and he/she
determines how therapy sessions go. In order for a client to reach self-actualization, they must
take the creativity innately invested in his/herself and express how they feel. This leads to selfacknowledgement. Part of this process is delving into feelings and emotions, which allows to
feel the connection between our inner core and the way we feel. As we begin to understand this
process, we learn to self-actualize (Sanyal, N. 2011,page 51). However, this process needs to
place in a loving environment, where there is unconditional positive regard. In order for this
process to run smoothly, the client must never feel judged and must feel that the therapist
empathizes with him/her. The client discovering answering (via subliminal help from the
therapist) is also an important therapeutic process that helps the client to reach self-actualization
(Rogers, C. 1946, para 28). In Rogers’ opinion, the three most important attributes that a
therapist held in order to help a client in client-centered therapy are being genuine, having
complete acceptance, and feeling empathy for the client (Sanyal, N. 2011, page 52).
Rogers believed that people developed problems when parts of the inner-self are missing.
Nilanjana Sanyal shared a good analogy of this in her article discussing Rogers’ theory. Sanyal
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compared the self to the interior design of a home. Everything has its place and the home looks
nice when everything is there. The same is with the interior of a person. If everything is present
and in its place, then a person will be happy. But, if something is missing or out of place
problems will arise within the person (2011, page 50). However, Rogers’ also stated that change
will and can take place in an individual when the individual decides that he or she wants to
change. The individual must also see the potential inside his/herself to make the change (Rogers,
C. 1946, para 30-31).
Theory Three
The next theorist is Albert Ellis. Albert Ellis proposed a theory known as rational
emotive behavioral therapy. For Ellis’ theory to function correctly, an individual must be able to
perceive events that occur in life and tie these events together. An individual must also have the
capability to evaluate and make perceptions of the world they are in (Levinson M.H 2010, page
55). For the therapy part of Ellis’ theory, an individual must be able to look at his/her own life in
a third person point of view.
Albert Ellis’ main component of his theory is his ABC model. This model shows Ellis’
perspective on behavior—that individual’s emotions are based on constructed views of life. This
means that events don’t just occur and we react, but rather that we perceive the event in a certain
way, and then react. In Ellis’ ABC model, A represents the event that occurs, B is the belief or
cognition about the event, and then finally C is the feeling or consequence towards that event. In
an article written by Norbert Johnson, this model is explained through an example about a man
who does not get a job promotion. The event of this man not receiving a promotion would be A,
the event that occurs. Most people in this scenario would be frustrated. According to Ellis’
theory, the cause of this upset would not be the event (A) but rather the view or perception (B)
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toward the lack of promotion. These feelings of being upset would be the C part of the ABC
model (1980, page 49). Another part of Ellis’ model was that if an individual’s belief system
was irrational, then so was the perception that he/she took on the world. Some of these irrational
ways of thinking are all-or-nothing thinking, overgeneralization, and jumping to conclusions.
An all-or-nothing thinker believes that in a situation, there’s either one outcome or the other—
it’s black and white, with no gray. An individual who overgeneralizes his/her thinking is takes a
small situation and turns it into a much bigger one. An individual that jumps to conclusions
makes biased conclusions based on events that happened, even though those conclusions might
not be right. Ellis believed that these ways of thinking lead to psychological issues the
individual would have to face.
Ellis believed that individuals developed problems through what Levinson referred to as
“is of identity” and “is of prediction” (Levinson M.H 2010, pages 56-57). ‘Is of identity’ refers
to when individuals classify themselves in categories (i.e. “I am a student”). While this may
seem harmless, we end up tricking our minds into believing that is the only category in which we
belong. This leads to a loss of one’s self. ‘Is of prediction’ is when you apply the same thinking
to others (i.e. “She is a student”), which can lead to thinking of others solely in that category.
Ellis also believed that individuals can change, but it is only through changing of the individual’s
perspective and way they refer to his/her self or others that change will occur (Levinson M.H
2010, pages 56-57).
Theory Four
The final theorist that will be discussed is Sigmund Freud and his psychoanalytical
theory. Some prepositions to Sigmund Freud’s theory are that unconscious behaviors control our
behavior, our behavior is affected by our childhood, and, in dream analysis, recalled dreams are
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in a façade behind which meaning must be inferred. In order for this theory to be comprehended,
one must understand these prepositions.
In Freud’s psychoanalytical theory, a person’s personality or psychic structure consist of
three parts: the id, the superego, and the ego. The id is the part of the psyche that comprises
everything that is inherited, present at birth, and instincts every individual possesses. These
instincts are split into two categories: Eros, or love instinct, and the death instinct. The love
instinct seeks to build and establish unity. The death instinct seeks to undo unity (Beystehner, K.
2001, para 8). The superego limits satisfaction and represents the influence of society and those
around you. The ego is what controls the id and the superego, and is the link between the id and
the external life. The ego also becomes aware of stimuli, and reacts to this stimuli either through
adaptation or flight. The ego also regulates activity, maximizing pleasure and avoiding scenarios
that aren’t pleasurable (Beystehner, K. 2001, para 8). Freud stated that we develop our
personality and possible problems as we go through the main phases of sexual life. These phases
are the oral, anal, phallic, latency period, and genital stage. It is during these stages that
problems may arise, which will later arise through either conscious, preconscious, or
unconscious states. A conscious state is one where the individual is aware of what is occurring,
but Freud stated that this consciousness only occurred briefly. A preconscious state is a state that
is capable of becoming conscious, but is not at that time. Lastly, unconsciousness is a state that
is not easily accessible but can be recognized and explained through analysis (Beystehner, K.
2001, para 11). Freud believed the id to be completely unconscious, the superego to be
unconscious and conscious, and the ego to be the most conscious part of the psyche (Segrist, D.J.
2009, page 51).
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Freud believed that individuals developed problems due to unconscious factors that can
lead to produce unhappiness, which can be exhibited through undesired actions or traits
(Beystehner, K. 2001 para 1). Problems can also arise if the id and the superego are not in
balance. If an individual has a stronger id, the person will be selfish. If the individual has a
more dominant superego, the individual will be guilt-ridden (Segrist, D.J. 2009, page 53). Freud
also believed that individuals can change, but that this change is very hard to achieve and takes
many years to occur. While change is not common in individuals, it does occur (Beystehner, K.
2001 para 14).
Section 3: Application of a Theory to Personal Issue
The theory that I feel best applies to my personal issue of being shy is Albert Ellis’ theory
of rational emotive behavioral therapy. This theory best applies to my case because the action of
meeting new people can be perceived differently for different individuals because of their
personal experiences in life. My personal perception of meeting new people is that meeting new
people is scary. This leads to me being afraid to talk to new people and eventually avoiding the
whole situation in the first place. To find the cause of this, one must look at the origins of where
this perception may have come from. When I was a child, my mother always to me to not talk to
strangers. As a child, a stranger came to be anyone whom I did not know personally. My mind
thought irrationally, and I jumped to conclusions that I shouldn’t talk to strangers because they
are scary. This same concept has followed me throughout my life. I see individuals who I do
not know personally as strangers. This means that the first few times that I talk with a person, he
or she is a stranger until I have securely made that connection in my mind that I really know and
can trust that person. It takes multiple meetings with people for me to feel comfortable around
them and not see them as ‘scary’ like I did when I was a child. In order for me to change this
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reaction that I have towards new people, I will have to change my perception towards individuals
that I do not know. It is only through this application of the theory that I could solve this
problem, in Ellis’ eyes and I agree that his theory is the best one that is congruent with helping
my problem.
Section 4: Conclusion
As seen in this paper, there have been many theories on behavior that have been
discussed over the years. As these theories are applied to our lives at different times for different
situations, we will begin to develop our own sense for which theory is best for us. It is through
this application that we begin to learn how to apply psychology into our lives and maybe one day
become ‘a great’ ourselves.
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References
Beystehner, K. (2001). Psychoanalysis: Freud’s revolutionary approach to human personality.
SAPA Project Test.
Johnson, N. (1980). Must the rational emotive therapist be like Albert Ellis?. Personnel &
Guidance Journal, 59(1), 49.
Levinson M. H. (2010). Alfred Korzybski and rational emotive behavior therapy. ETC: A Review
of General Semantics, 67(1), 55-63.
Rogers, C. (1946). Significatn aspects of client-centered therapy. Classics in the History of
Psychology. 1(1), 415-422.
Sanyal, N. (2011). Client-centered therapy: The interior decorator of mind. Amity Journal of
Applied Psychology, 2(1), 49-53.
Segrist, D. J. (2009). What's going on in your professor's head: Demonstrating the id, ego, and
superego. Teaching Of Psychology, 36(1), 51-54.
Spielman, R.M., Dumper, K., Jenkins, W., Lacombe, A., Lovette, M., Perlmutter, M.,
(2014). Psychology. Houston, TX: OpenStax
Weiss, S. J., & Rosales-Ruiz, J. (2014). Introduction to the special issue on operant/classical
conditioning: Comparisons, intersections and interactions. International Journal of
Comparative Psychology, 27(4), 515-525.
Winters, L. C., & Wallace, W. H. (1970). On operant conditioning techniques. Journal of
Advertising Research, 10(5), 39-45.
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