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Geri Lavrov / Photographer's Choice / Getty Images ! Learning ! How do we learn? ! Classical conditioning ! Operant conditioning ! Biology, cognition, and learning ! Learning by Observation How Do We Learn? ! Learning ! The process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors ! Associative learning ! Learning that certain events occur together—the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) ! Cognitive learning ! Acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language How Do We Learn? Association is one way of learning. Conditioning is the process of learning associations. Learning also occurs through cognitive and observational learning. There are two main forms of conditioning. • Classical • Operant Learning ! Classical conditioning ! Type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events ! Operant conditioning ! Type of learning in which we learn to associate a response and its consequence ! Thus, we learn to repeat acts followed by good results and to avoid acts followed by bad results Let’s take a closer look. Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Conditioning is not the only form of learning ! Through cognitive learning we acquire mental information that guides our behavior ! Observational learning, another form of cognitive learning, facilitates learning from others’ experiences Why are habits, such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee, so hard to break? Classical Conditioning ! Pavlov’s experiments ! Pavlov’s legacy Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s experiments ! He and his IVAN PAVLOV “Experimental investigation should lay a solid foundation for a future true science of psychology” (1927). associates explored five processes: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. PAVLOV’S CLASSIC EXPERIMENT After studying this experiment, let’s make sure all the definitions are clear. Can you define each of these more completely? ! Neutral stimulus (NS) ! In classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning ! Unconditioned stimulus (US) ! In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally— naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR) ! Unconditioned response (UR) ! In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth) ! Conditioned stimulus (CS) ! In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR) ! Conditioned response (CR) ! In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff to your blinking eye. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS? The US? The UR? The CS? The CR? Classical Conditioning ! Acquisition ! First stage in classical conditioning ! Place where link between the NS and US is learned ! A quail tale ! Recent research on Japanese quail shows how their capacity for classical conditioning gives them a reproductive edge ! How did the researchers develop the quail’s preference for their cage’s red-light district? AN UNEXPECTED CS Psychologist Michael Tirrell (1990) recalled: “My first girlfriend loved onions, so I came to associate onion breath with kissing. Before long, onion breath sent tingles up and down my spine. Oh what a feeling!” In horror movies, sexually arousing images of women are sometimes paired with violence against women. Based on classical conditioning principles, what might be an effect of this pairing? Classical Conditioning ! Extinction and spontaneous recovery ! Extinction ! In classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus ! In operant conditioning, the weakening of a response when it is no longer reinforced ! Spontaneous recovery ! Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response ACQUISITION, EXTINCTION, AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY The rising curve (simplified here) shows that the CR rapidly grows stronger as the NS becomes a CS as it is repeatedly paired with the US (acquisition). The CS weakens when it is presented alone (extinction). After a pause, the CR reappears (spontaneous recovery). The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called________. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called ________ . Classical Conditioning ! Generalization ! The tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus ! Can be adaptive ! Discrimination ! Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli ! Is also adaptive Pavlov’s Legacy ! Pavlov showed how a scientific model can be used to objectively study the learning. ! Many responses to many stimuli can be classical conditioned. This is true for every species tested. If the aroma of cake baking makes your mouth water, what is the US? The CS? The CR? Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life ! Pavlov’s principles influence human health and well- being in a variety of ways ! Examples ! Patients can develop classically conditioned sideeffects to drugs given as cancer treatments ! Former drug users often feel a craving when they are again in the drug-using context Archives of the History of American Psychology, The University of Akron In Watson and Rayner’s experiments, “Little Albert” learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In this experiment, what was the US? The UR? The NS? The CS? The CR? Operant Conditioning ! Skinner’s experiments ! Skinner’s legacy ! Close-up: Using operant conditioning to build your own strengths ! Contrasting classical and operant conditioning Differences: Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical Operant • Involves learning • Involves learning associations between events that are not controlled by learner associations between behavior and resulting events • Respondent behavior: • Association with one’s Automatic responses to stimuli own actions with consequences With ________ conditioning, we learn associations between events we do not control. With ________ conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and resulting events. Operant Conditioning ! Skinner’s experiments ! Built on Thorndike’s law of effect: Rewarded behavior is likely to be repeated ! Developed to reveal principles of behavior control ! Shaping behavior (successive approximation) ! Operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior ! Used as we continually reinforce others’ behavior CAT IN A PUZZLE BOX Thorndike used a fish reward to entice cats to find their way out of a puzzle box (right) through a series of maneuvers. The cats’ performance tended to improve with successive trials (left), illustrating Thorndike’s law of effect. (Adapted from Thorndike, 1898.) Types of Reinforcers ! Positive reinforcement ! Increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli ! Is anything that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response ! Negative reinforcement ! Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli ! Is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response ! Is not punishment A SKINNER BOX Inside the box, the rat presses a bar or button for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device (not shown here) keeps records of the animal’s responses. WAYS TO INCREASE BEHAVIOR Operant Conditioning; Types of Reinforcers ! Primary reinforcers ! Unlearned; innate ! Conditioned reinforcers (secondary reinforcers) ! Learned associaitions with primary reinforcers ! Immediate reinforcers ! Immediate rewards ! Delayed reinforcers ! Delayed Can you think of examples for each of these? Operant Conditioning ! Reinforcement schedule ! Is a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced ! Reinforcement schedules vary and influence our learning ! Continuous reinforcement ! Is good for behavior mastery; extinction can occur ! Partial (intermittent) reinforcement ! Is slower but extinction is less 6-7 How do continuous and partial reinforcement schedules affect behavior? Operant Conditioning ! Fixed-ratio schedules ! Reinforce behavior after a set number of responses ! Variable-ratio schedules ! Reinforce after an unpredictable number of responses ! Fixed-interval schedules ! Variable-interval schedules ! Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses Vitaly Titov & Maria Sidelnikova / Shu@erstock ! Reinforce the first response after a fixed time period Telemarketers are reinforced by which schedule? People checking the oven to see if the cookies are done are on which schedule? Airline frequent-flyer programs that offer a free flight after every 25,000 miles of travel are using which reinforcement schedule? Punishment ! Ways to decrease behavior ! Punished behavior suppressed; punishing behavior reinforced ! Discrimination among situations taught ! Generalization occurs; fear taught ! Aggression may be increased by modeling David Strickler / The Image Works ! Major drawbacks of physical punishment Sam Falk / Science Source Skinner’s Legacy • Urged people to use operant principles to influence the behavior of others • Criticized for neglecting people’s personal freedom and advocating for external control of others B. F. Skinner “I am sometimes asked, ‘Do you think of yourself as you think of the organisms you study?’ The answer is yes. So far as I know, my behavior at any given moment has been nothing more than the product of my genetic endowment, my personal history, and the current setting” (1983). Applications of Operant Conditioning ! At school ! Many of the ideas for education are used today ! Electronic adaptive devices are often Skinnerian ! At work ! Many organizations used reinforcers to influence productivity ! At home ! Reinforcement is used and abused in many parenting situations ! Reinforcement can be used effectively to help children change and manage their behavior Ethan constantly misbehaves at preschool even though his teacher scolds him repeatedly. Why does Ethan’s misbehavior continue, and what can his teacher do to stop it? Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical Operant • Form of associative • Form of associative learning learning • Associate different events • Links behaviors to act on that one cannot control the environment to produce rewarding or punishing events • Respond automatically Using Operant Conditioning to Build Your Own Strengths ! State your goal in measurable terms and announce it ! Decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal ! Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior ! Reinforce the desired behavior ! Reduce the rewards gradually Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n) behavior. Biology, Cognition, and Learning ! Biological limits on conditioning ! Cognitive influences on conditioning Biology, Cognition, and Learning ! Biological limits on conditioning Garcia and Koelling’s taste aversion research ended the belief that environments rule out behavior. Findings help disprove the belief that almost any stimulus could serve equally well as a conditioned stimulus. ! Humans are biologically prepared to learn some things rather than others ! Humans are naturally disposed to learn associations favored by natural selection How did Garcia and Koelling’s taste aversion studies help disprove the belief that almost any stimulus (tastes, sights, sounds) could serve equally well as a conditioned stimulus? Explain. Courtesy of Kathryn Brownson, Hope College Biology, Cognition, and Learning Limits on operant conditioning ! Each species has a limit ROMANTIC RED In a series of experiments that controlled for other factors (such as the brightness of the image), men found women more attractive and sexually desirable when framed in red (Elliot & Niesta, 2008). on their capacity for operant conditioning ! Our biology predisposes us to learn associations that are naturally adaptive Cognitive Influences on Conditioning ! Watson ! Rejected mentalistic concepts ! Maintained that the basic laws of learning are the same for all animals ! Contended that psychology should be objective science based on observable behaviors Watson’s view of learning underestimated two sets of influences: • Way biological predispositions limits learning • Effect of cognitive processes on learning Will & Deni McIntyre / Science Source Cognitive Influences on Conditioning LATENT LEARNING Animals, like people, can learn from experience, with or without reinforcement. ! Cognition and operant conditioning ! Skinner rejected the premise that cognitive processes are integral to learning ! Cognitive maps ! Latent learning ! Cognitive map ! Mental image of the layout of one’s environment ! Latent learning ! Learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it ! Intrinsic motivation ! Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake ! Extrinsic motivation ! Desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid a punishment Learning by Observation ! Thinking critically about: Does viewing media violence trigger violent behavior? Learning by Observation Observational learning ! Learning by observing others Modeling ! The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Vicarious reinforcement or punishment ! Learning to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situations like those being observed ALBERT BANDURA “The Bobo doll follows me wherever I go.” Learning by Observation ! Mirrors and imitation in the brain ! Mirror neuron ! Fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions ! Provides a neural basis for imitation and observational learning Wellcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience / Science Source EXPERIENCED AND IMAGINED PAIN IN THE BRAIN Brain activity related to actual pain (left) is mirrored in the brain of an observing loved one (right). Empathy in the brain shows up in areas that process emotions, but not in the areas that register physical pain. Applications of Observational Learning ! Prosocial effects ! Prosocial behavior models can have a prosocial effect ! Effectiveness is related to consistency in actions and words ! Antisocial effects ! Observational learning can have adverse effects ! Early childhood environments with high levels of aggression, TV, and videos are powerful sources of observational learning DOES VIEWING MEDIA VIOLENCE TRIGGER VIOLENT BEHAVIOR? ! Correlational studies ! In U.S. and Canada, homicide rates doubled as TV was introduced and spreading ! Elementary schoolchildren exposed to media violence fought more and had a greater risk for violent behavior as teens. ! Experimental studies ! Violence-viewing effect stems from two factors ! Media models prompt imitation ! Prolonged exposure to violence desensitizes viewers