Download Instructional Medial Technologies for Learning

Theories of Learning
By Lora Plank
Learning Theories
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Constructivism
Theorists
Theorists
Theorists
Principles
Principles
Principles
Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
Design Implications
Design Implications
Design Implications
Example
Example
Example
Behaviorism Theorists
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Albert Bandura
B. F. Skinner
Clark Hull
E. C. Tolman
Edwin Guthrie
Ivan Pavlov
John Watson
Albert Bandura
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Social Learning Theory … People can learn
by observing the behavior of others and the
outcomes of those behaviors.
Claims that modeling can have as much
impact as direct experience.

Modeling – individuals learn how to act by
observing another.
http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~lynda_abbott/Social.html, retrieved June 29, 2007.
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/comm/bandur-s.mhtml, retrieved June 29, 2007.
B. F. Skinner
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Principle of reinforcement … the behavior of
an organism can be shaped by reinforcing, or
rewarding, the desired responses to the
environment.
Proponent of operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is the use of
consequences to modify the occurrence of
voluntary behavior.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 34.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning, (retrieved June 29, 2007)
Clark Hull

Believed that internal stimuli also elicit
responses and that observed behavior was a
function of these internal stimuli as well as
environment variables.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 34.
E. C. Tolman

Purposive behaviorist … Believed that
behavior is guided by purpose and individuals
selectively take in information from the
environment and build cognitive maps as
they learn.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 34.
Edwin R. Guthrie
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Believed that stimuli which are acting at the
time of a response tend on their reoccurrence
to evoke that response.
One-trial learning

The last stimulus before a response occurs
becomes associated with the response.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 34.
Peterson, Heather,
http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/guthrie.htm#Theory, retrieved
June 29, 2007.
Ivan Pavlov

Classical conditioning … repeatedly pairing an
unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus
resulting in the neutral stimulus eventually
eliciting the same response as the
unconditioned stimulus.

A light shone in one’s eyes causes a blink
(unconditioned). Repeatedly pairing a neutral
stimulus like a chime with the unconditioned stimulus
will result in blinking upon hearing the chime.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 35.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.
John Watson
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Put emphasis on external behavior of people
and their reactions in given situations.
Believed that virtually all human behavior
could be explained as conditioning.
Believed that psychology should study
observable behaviors, not internal processes
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unllimited, p. 287.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson, (retrieved June 29, 2007)
Behaviorist Principles
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Learning is demonstrated by changes in form
or frequency of observable performance.
Learning is accomplished when a proper
response is demonstrated following the
presentation of a specific environmental
stimulus.
Responses that are followed by
reinforcement are more likely to recur.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 55.
Behaviorist Principles
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The learner is a block box and nothing is
known about what goes on inside.
The learner is reactive to environmental
conditions.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 35.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 55
Behaviorist Characteristics
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Positive reinforcement
Premack principle
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Learned helplessness
Extinction
Response cost
Timeout
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Shaping
Chaining
Fading
Positive Reinforcement
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The presentation of a reinforcer contingent
upon a response that results in the
strengthening of the response.
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Primary reinforcers’ value is biologically
determined, i.e. food
Conditioned reinforcers acquire value through
association with a primary reinforcer, i.e. money
Example: Students who complete a pre-exam
assessment and get at least a 90% score get 5
bonus points (conditioned reinforcer).
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 39.
Premack Principle

Making high-frequency behaviors contingent
upon low-frequency behaviors in order to
strengthen the low-frequency behavior.

Example: Using playing outside as a reward for
eating all of your spinach.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 41.
Negative Reinforcement
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Strengthens a response through the removal
of an aversive stimulus contingent upon that
response.

Students who score above 95% on all tests will
not have to take the final exam. (This is similar to
not having to take the GRE (aversive stimulus) by
maintain a specific GPA (strengthens the
response of getting good grades.)
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 41-42.
Punishment

Presentation of an aversive stimulus
contingent upon a response that reduced the
rate of that response.

The surgeon yelling at a student for selecting the
wrong instrument.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 42
.
Learned Helplessness
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Passive acceptance of events seemingly
beyond one’s control.

A student repeatedly fails tests no matter now
hard they study. Eventually, they stop studying
because passing the test seems to be beyond
their control.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 43.
Extinction

Previously existing contingencies of
reinforcement are taken away, thereby
causing a reduction in the frequency of a
response.

A student repeatedly makes jokes during lecture.
Everyone is annoyed but chuckles. Eventually,
the chuckling stops and the student stops telling
the jokes.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 43.
Response Cost

Removal of reinforcement contingent upon
behavior.

Fine or loss of some previously earned reinforcer
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 44.
Timeout
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Removing the learner, for a limited time, from
the circumstances reinforcing the undesired
behavior.

Common method of behavioral modification for
children, generally 1 minute per year of age.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 45.
Shaping

Reinforcement of successive approximations
to a goal behavior.

When students are learning to set up a surgical
table, they receive praise after first preparing the
drapes, then after preparing the sutures, then
after preparing the instruments until they are
finally able to set up the entire table.

Praise is a strong social reinforcer.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 45.
Chaining
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Establishing complex behaviors made up of
discrete, simpler behaviors already known to
the learner.

When learning to prepare for a surgical
procedure, each of the individual steps (opening
supplies, washing the hands, gowning, preparing
the table) has been learned through shaping and
then each of these steps is chained together to
complete the complex process of preparing for the
procedure
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 49.
Fading
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Fading out of discriminative cues used to
initially establish a desired behavior.

The instructor coaches the students as to which
instruments to place in which position on the
Mayo stand. During each successive setup, the
instructor gives fewer cues until the student is
able to complete the setup independently.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 50.
Design Implications
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Behaviorist strategies are best suited for wellstructured problems.
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Recalling facts
Defining and illustrating concepts
Applying explanations or association
Chaining
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 55-56.
Design Implications
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Emphasis is on sequencing, mastery of early
steps before progressing to more complex
levels.
Use of reinforcement (rewards, feedback)
Ensure a strong stimulus, response
association (cues, practice)
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 55-56.
Programmed Instruction
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Leading a learner through a series of instructional
steps to a desired level of performance.
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A frame, or small unit of information is presented as a
stimulus
The learner then makes a response by answering a
question
He is given feedback and a correct response is reinforced
The cycle is repeated to present a complete program in a
logical sequence of information
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unllimited, p. 297.
Drill-and-Practice
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The learner is led through series of practice
exercises designed to increase fluency in a
new skill.
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Learner has previously received some instruction
Include feedback to correct and remediate errors
Example: Students use drill-and-practice when
learning new medical terms.
Heinich, Robert. (1999). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning. Columbus,
OH: Prentice Hall, p. 9.
Example From My Field
A mastery learning approach is well-suited for instruction of surgical
fundamentals required to prepare the operating room for a procedure.
This is a well-structured problem. Well-structured problems are
performed by recalling procedures and performing them exactly as
taught. It is not necessary to understand why the procedure works.
Well-structured problems are ideally suited to behaviorist strategies
such as Bloom’s mastery learning approach. There are ten fundamental
competencies that must be demonstrated before any student can
participate in “real-world” patient care. These ten competencies are
sequential, beginning with simpler skills and progressing to more
complex skills.
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unllimited, p. 289-290.
Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 67.
http://allen.warren.net/ml.htm, (retrieved June 29, 2007)
Example From My Field
The first step is to specify and publish the particular knowledge or skills
to be learned. For each competency students are first presented with
clearly stated learning objectives from one or more of the three learning
domains, cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Objectives are
developed using Bloom’s taxonomic approach.
Students are next presented with underlying theory related to the
specific competency. An initial assessment of theoretical knowledge
follows in the form of a written exam. This allows the instructor to
determine what particular areas of instruction the student is having
difficulty with.
Example From My Field
Students are then assigned to specific lab groups to participate in
relevant learning experiences which have been developed for each
competency. Groups are based on similarly demonstrated strengths or
weaknesses of the students assigned to the group. Additionally, selfpaced learning modules may be assigned to groups weak in specific
theoretical aspects of a competency. For example, students weak in the
fundamentals of asepsis (as demonstrated by poor performance on the
written assessment) may be assigned to watch videos or computerbased tutorials.
Example From My Field
Each small group then works under the guidance of an instructor to
learn to apply theory to simulated practice. The specific skill is
demonstrated by the instructor so that the students may model her
behavior. Students will use drill-and-practice to improve fluency in
each skill. Using fading, in the early stages of learning, the instructor
may give cues. As learning progresses, cues will become less frequent.
It is important for students to receive prompt feedback regarding
deficiencies so that corrective measures can be instituted and “bad
behaviors” can be eliminated. Even those who demonstrate initial
mastery must continue to practice (overlearning) so that behaviors
become automatic. Through shaping the instructor will have reinforced
successive approximations of the goal by giving praise as the student
completes each successive step of the process. Ultimately, the student
will master the complex behavior of preparing the entire room by
chaining each of the simpler tasks involved.
Example From My Field
Finally, criterion-referenced assessment measures performance in
terms of the specifically stated learning objectives. Assessment of
theoretical knowledge is through comprehensive written examination.
Authentic assessment in a laboratory situation (students demonstrate all
tasks expected in the surgical setting and are evaluated using a rubric)
demonstrates application of theory to practice. Students who
demonstrate mastery of fundamental skills are assigned to the clinical
setting where ultimately, in order to graduate from the program, they will
be expected to synthesize theory and practice in new, increasingly
complex situations. Students who fail to demonstrate mastery of
fundamental skills are reassigned in groups or worked with individually
for remediation.
Cognitive Theorists
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Charles Reigeluth
David Ausubel
David Merrill
Howard Gardner
Jerome Brunner
Robert M. Gagné
Charles Reigeluth
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Elaboration theory … instruction should be
organized in increasing order of complexity for
optimal learning.
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The simplest version of a procedural task is presented first
Subsequent lessons present additional versions until the
full range of tasks are taught
In each lesson, the learner should be reminded of all
versions taught so far (summary/synthesis).
Learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which
subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated.
http://tip.psychology.org/reigelut.html , retrieved June 29, 2007.
David Ausubel
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Made a significant contribution to the field of
learning in the research and development of
advance organizers.
Subsumption theory … new material is
related to relevant ideas in the existing
cognitive structure on a substantive, nonverbatim basis.
http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html, retrieved June 29, 2007.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ausubel, retrieved June 29, 2007.
David Merrill
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Component display theory … instruction is more
effective if it contains all necessary primary and
secondary presentation forms.
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Learning is classified along two dimensions: content (facts,
concepts, procedures, and principles) and performance
(remembering, using, generalities).
Four primary presentation forms: rules, examples, recall
and practice.
Secondary presentation forms include: prerequisites,
objectives, helps, mnemonics, and feedback.
http://tip.psychology.org/merrill.html , retrieved June 29, 2007.
Howard Gardner
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Defined cognitive science as “a
contemporary, empirically based effort to
answer long-standing epistemologically
questions – particularly those concerned with
the nature of knowledge, its components, its
sources, its development, and its
deployment.”
Bednar, A.K., Cunningham, D., Duffy, T.M., & Perry, J.D. (1991) Instructional Technology
Past Present and Future (7th ed.). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc., p. 90.
Jerome Bruner
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Maintains that people interpret the world in
terms of its similarities and differences in
which people form a hierarchical
arrangement of related categories.
Ideas are based on categorization. "To
perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is
to categorize, to learn is to form categories,
to make decisions is to categorize."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner, retrieved June 29, 2007.
Robert M. Gagné
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Conditions of Learning … there are nine
events that activate processes needed for
effective learning: gain attention, inform
learner of objectives, stimulate recall of prior
learning, present stimulus material, provide
learner guidance, elicit performance, provide
feedback, assess performance, enhance
retention and transfer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_M._Gagn%C3%A9 , retrieved June 29, 2007.
http://ide.ed.psu.edu/idde/9events.htm, retrieved June 29, 2007.
Cognitivist Principles
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Mental models are the key to learning and
using knowledge.
Learning is equated with discrete changes
between states of knowledge.
Memory is given a prominent role in the
learning process.
Foshay, W.F.; Silber, K.H., and Stelnicki (2003). Writing Training Materials that Work.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pferiffer, p. 17.
Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 66.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 58.
Cognitivist Principles
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
Focus is on how learning occurs, how
information is received, organized, stored and
retrieved by the mind.
The learner is an active participant in the
learning process.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 58-59.
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Cognitive_strategy, retrieved June 30, 2007.
Cognitive Characteristics
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Schemata
Assimilation
Accommodation
Chunking
Rehearsal
Elaboration
Mental models
Authentic contexts
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Advance organizers
Analogies/metaphors
Mnemonics
Hierarchical
organization
Schemata
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Mental structures by which individuals
organize their perceived environment.

Students are aware that there are various
categories of instruments, clamps, retractors, etc.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.
Assimilation

Integration of new information and
experiences into existing schemata. The
schema expends but does not change its
basic structure.

The student becomes aware the clamps may be
further categorized for various uses vascular
clamps, neuro clamps, etc. but all clamps are
used for hemostasis.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.
Accommodation

Modification of existing schemata or creation
of new schemata in an attempt to deal with a
new concept or experience.

The student becomes aware that not only clamps
are used for hemostasis. There are various
chemical means as well.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.
Chunking

Breaking information into smaller bits to
improve memory.

When learning surgical instruments we first learn
all instruments in a specific group, first the
clamps, then the graspers, and so on
Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 63.
Rehearsal
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Repetition of information in order to move it
from sensory stores to memory


Repeating phone numbers
Association of an important characteristic with a
name, i.e. Allis has alligator teeth
Foshay, W. R., Silber, K. H. and Steinicki, M. B. (2003). Writing Training Materials that
Work. San Drancisco: Pfeiffer/Jossey-Bass, p. 12.
Elaboration

Adding information to the information being
learned. Association of new information to
existing information creates more pathways
from which to retrieve the new information.

When students are learning to use instruments
such as retractors, we associate this new
information with existing information such as the
use of kitchen instruments, i.e. forks, knives.
Foshay, W. R., Silber, K. H. and Steinicki, M. B. (2003). Writing Training Materials that
Work. San Drancisco: Pfeiffer/Jossey-Bass, p. 13.
Mental Models
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Representations of reality that we use to
understand specific phenomena

Association of declarative knowledge
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Three types of declarative knowledge are facts,
concepts, principles.
Organization of declarative knowledge
Application of declarative knowledge
Bridge between declarative and procedural
knowledge
Foshay, W. R., Silber, K. H. and Steinicki, M. B. (2003). Writing Training Materials that
Work. San Drancisco: Pfeiffer/Jossey-Bass, p. 17.
http://home.sprynet.com/%7Egkearsley/tip/models.html, (retrieved June 28, 2007)
Authentic Context

Use authentic contexts for explanations, examples,
and practice to help the learners relate what they
learn to situations in which they will need to use the
knowledge.

Any skill taught, for example inserting a Foley catheter, is
put into authentic context. Theory is first presented with
“real-life” stories of when the skill would be used and
complications that may occur. Training then moves to the
lab where the student practices the skill while interacting
with the instructor and receiving feedback.
Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 64.
Advance Organizers

Popularized by David Ausubel, advance organizers
help prepare the learner for new information and
should be given in advance of the presentation of
new information. They help the learner organize
and interpret new information.
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Overview or lesson introduction
Statement of learning objectives
Matrix
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 61.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 19.
http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html, retrieved June 29, 2007.
http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/8.3a.html, retrieved June 29, 2007.
Analogies and Metaphors

Cognitive theories emphasize relating new
information to existing knowledge in memory.
Analogies and metaphors relate new
concepts to prior experiences.

In surgical study, we relate suturing techniques to
some common household sewing techniques.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 60-61.
Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 64.
Mnemonics

A mnemonic is a memory aid used to create
associations between easy-to-remember
information and to be remembered lists of
data.

We use the mnemonic “On Old Olympus Towering
Top A Famous Vocal German Viewed Some
Hops” to help students remember the cranial
nerves … olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear,
trigeminal, etc.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic, retrieved June 29, 2007
Hierarchical Organization

Information being learning should be
hierarchically organized or categorized in a
manner such as to approximate the way
information is stored in memory in order to
increase retention.

When teaching the student the various surgical
instruments, we first discuss, present similarities
and then practice with all the clamps, then the
retractors, then the graspers, and so on
Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 64.
.
Design Implications


Cognitivist strategies are best suited for
moderately-structured problems which will
require reasoning, problem-solving and
information-processing.
Goal is to communicate or transfer
knowledge to the students in the most
efficient, effective manner.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 59.
Design Implications



Emphasis on structuring, organizing, and
sequencing information to facilitate optimal
processing.
Emphasis on making associations to existing
knowledge in memory.
Use authentic-context presentation with
practice and feedback.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 60-61.
Silber, K. (1998). Cognitive approach to training development. ETR&D, 46(4), p. 62.
Example From My Field
Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction can be applied to the moderatelystructured problem of teaching students surgical instruments and their
uses. Students will be presented with learning objectives and an
advance organizer including the five basic categories of surgical
instruments, general use of the categories and representative examples
of instruments in a given category. “Learning is promoted when learners
are engaged in solving real-world problems.” (Merrill, p.45) The
learner’s attention will be gained by showing a short video of a surgical
procedure which focuses on the instruments being used.
Merrill, M.D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Education Technology Research and
Development, 50(3), p. 43-59.
Example From My Field
As a child develops schemata to classify objects from their
environment, so will the students develop a schema for the classification
of surgical instruments. They will learn to place the instruments into one
of five categories, i.e. the clamps have rings, the graspers look like
tweezers. It will be very important to use chunking, to break the very
large task of learning 100 instruments into the smaller chucks of
categories, beginning with the simpler categories first, then proceeding
to the more complex categories. This hierarchical organization will
enhance the students’’ learning.
Merrill, M.D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Education Technology Research and
Development, 50(3), p. 43-59.
Example From My Field
“Learning is promoted when relevant previous experience is activated.”
(Merrill. 46) Learners will be encouraged to recall, relate and apply
knowledge from relevant past experience such as the uses of ordinary
household objects, forks, knives, tweezers, etc. Each learner has
experience with many objects that can be related to the use of surgical
instruments. In fact, during the days of the civil war, many household
objects were used to perform surgery. Through elaboration and the
use of analogies, learners will be able to relate the use of surgical
instruments to objects used in daily life, i.e. much as a fork is used to
hold a piece of meat to be sliced, an instrument is used to hold tissue to
be resected.
Merrill, M.D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Education Technology Research and
Development, 50(3), p. 43-59.
Example From My Field
“Learning is promoted through demonstration of what is to be learned.”
(Merrill, p. 47) The individual instruments will demonstrated to the
students. Demonstration will move to a lab setting where a simulated
minor surgery will show the instruments in use.
Students will apply their new knowledge of instruments a laboratory
simulation. Students will recognize instruments learned. They will be
able to identify instruments used in specific situations. Learners will be
guided by instructor feedback and coaching which will gradually be
withdrawn before final testing.
Merrill, M.D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Education Technology Research and
Development, 50(3), p. 43-59.
Example From My Field
Finally, students will integrate the new knowledge into authentic
context in the clinical setting. They will be expected to not only
recognize the surgical instruments but also to anticipate which
instruments will be used in a given situation.
Merrill, M.D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Education Technology Research and
Development, 50(3), p. 43-59.