Download Theories of Learning

Theories of Learning
By Lora Plank
Learning Theories
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Constructivism
Theorists
Theorists
Theorists
Principles
Principles
Principles
Characteristics
Characteristics
Characteristics
Design Implications
Design Implications
Design Implications
Example
Example
Example
Behaviorism Theorists







Albert Bandura
B. F. Skinner
Clark Hull
E. C. Tolman
Edwin Guthrie
Ivan Pavlov
John Watson
Albert Bandura


Social Learning Theory … People can learn
by observing the behavior of others and the
outcomes of those behaviors.
Claims that modeling can have as much
impact as direct experience.

Modeling – individuals learn how to act by
observing another.
http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~lynda_abbott/Social.html, retrieved June 29, 2007.
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/comm/bandur-s.mhtml, retrieved June 29, 2007.
B. F. Skinner


Principle of reinforcement … the behavior of
an organism can be shaped by reinforcing, or
rewarding, the desired responses to the
environment.
Proponent of operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is the use of
consequences to modify the occurrence of
voluntary behavior.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 34.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning, (retrieved June 29, 2007)
Clark Hull

Believed that internal stimuli also elicit
responses and that observed behavior was a
function of these internal stimuli as well as
environment variables.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 34.
E. C. Tolman

Purposive behaviorist … Believed that
behavior is guided by purpose and individuals
selectively take in information from the
environment and build cognitive maps as
they learn.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 34.
Edwin R. Guthrie


Believed that stimuli which are acting at the
time of a response tend on their reoccurrence
to evoke that response.
One-trial learning

The last stimulus before a response occurs
becomes associated with the response.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 34.
Peterson, Heather,
http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/guthrie.htm#Theory, retrieved
June 29, 2007.
Ivan Pavlov

Classical conditioning … repeatedly pairing an
unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus
resulting in the neutral stimulus eventually
eliciting the same response as the
unconditioned stimulus.

A light shone in one’s eyes causes a blink
(unconditioned). Repeatedly pairing a neutral
stimulus like a chime with the unconditioned stimulus
will result in blinking upon hearing the chime.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 35.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.
John Watson



Put emphasis on external behavior of people
and their reactions in given situations.
Believed that virtually all human behavior
could be explained as conditioning.
Believed that psychology should study
observable behaviors, not internal processes
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unllimited, p. 287.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson, (retrieved June 29, 2007)
Behaviorist Principles



Learning is demonstrated by changes in form
or frequency of observable performance.
Learning is accomplished when a proper
response is demonstrated following the
presentation of a specific environmental
stimulus.
Responses that are followed by
reinforcement are more likely to recur.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 55.
Behaviorist Principles


The learner is a block box and nothing is
known about what goes on inside.
The learner is reactive to environmental
conditions.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 35.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 55
Behaviorist Characteristics








Positive reinforcement
Premack principle
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Learned helplessness
Extinction
Response cost
Timeout



Shaping
Chaining
Fading
Positive Reinforcement

The presentation of a reinforcer contingent
upon a response that results in the
strengthening of the response.



Primary reinforcers’ value is biologically
determined, i.e. food
Conditioned reinforcers acquire value through
association with a primary reinforcer, i.e. money
Example: Students who complete a pre-exam
assessment and get at least a 90% score get 5
bonus points (conditioned reinforcer).
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 39.
Premack Principle

Making high-frequency behaviors contingent
upon low-frequency behaviors in order to
strengthen the low-frequency behavior.

Example: Using playing outside as a reward for
eating all of your spinach.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 41.
Negative Reinforcement

Strengthens a response through the removal
of an aversive stimulus contingent upon that
response.

Students who score above 95% on all tests will
not have to take the final exam. (This is similar to
not having to take the GRE (aversive stimulus) by
maintain a specific GPA (strengthens the
response of getting good grades.)
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 41-42.
Punishment

Presentation of an aversive stimulus
contingent upon a response that reduced the
rate of that response.

The surgeon yelling at a student for selecting the
wrong instrument.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 42
.
Learned Helplessness

Passive acceptance of events seemingly
beyond one’s control.

A student repeatedly fails tests no matter now
hard they study. Eventually, they stop studying
because passing the test seems to be beyond
their control.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 43.
Extinction

Previously existing contingencies of
reinforcement are taken away, thereby
causing a reduction in the frequency of a
response.

A student repeatedly makes jokes during lecture.
Everyone is annoyed but chuckles. Eventually,
the chuckling stops and the student stops telling
the jokes.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 43.
Response Cost

Removal of reinforcement contingent upon
behavior.

Fine or loss of some previously earned reinforcer
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 44.
Timeout

Removing the learner, for a limited time, from
the circumstances reinforcing the undesired
behavior.

Common method of behavioral modification for
children, generally 1 minute per year of age.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 45.
Shaping

Reinforcement of successive approximations
to a goal behavior.

When students are learning to set up a surgical
table, they receive praise after first preparing the
drapes, then after preparing the sutures, then
after preparing the instruments until they are
finally able to set up the entire table.

Praise is a strong social reinforcer.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 45.
Chaining

Establishing complex behaviors made up of
discrete, simpler behaviors already known to
the learner.

When learning to prepare for a surgical
procedure, each of the individual steps (opening
supplies, washing the hands, gowning, preparing
the table) has been learned through shaping and
then each of these steps is chained together to
complete the complex process of preparing for the
procedure
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 49.
Fading

Fading out of discriminative cues used to
initially establish a desired behavior.

The instructor coaches the students as to which
instruments to place in which position on the
Mayo stand. During each successive setup, the
instructor gives fewer cues until the student is
able to complete the setup independently.
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (2nd ed.). Boston and
Bacon, p. 50.
Design Implications

Behaviorist strategies are best suited for wellstructured problems.




Recalling facts
Defining and illustrating concepts
Applying explanations or association
Chaining
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 55-56.
Design Implications



Emphasis is on sequencing, mastery of early
steps before progressing to more complex
levels.
Use of reinforcement (rewards, feedback)
Ensure a strong stimulus, response
association (cues, practice)
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, p. 55-56.
Programmed Instruction

Leading a learner through a series of instructional
steps to a desired level of performance.




A frame, or small unit of information is presented as a
stimulus
The learner then makes a response by answering a
question
He is given feedback and a correct response is reinforced
The cycle is repeated to present a complete program in a
logical sequence of information
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino. S. (2002) Instructional Medial
Technologies for Learning (7th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Prentice-Hall, p. 16.
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unllimited, p. 297.
Drill-and-Practice

The learner is led through series of practice
exercises designed to increase fluency in a
new skill.



Learner has previously received some instruction
Include feedback to correct and remediate errors
Example: Students use drill-and-practice when
learning new medical terms.
Heinich, Robert. (1999). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning. Columbus,
OH: Prentice Hall, p. 9.
Example From My Field
We use a mastery learning approach for instruction of surgical
fundamentals required to prepare the operating room for a procedure.
This is a well-structured problem, ideally suited to behaviorist strategies
such as Bloom’s mastery learning approach. There are ten fundamental
competencies that must be demonstrated before any student can
participate in “real-world” patient care. These ten competencies are
sequential, beginning with simpler skills and progressing to more
complex skills.
The first step is to specify and publish the particular knowledge or skills
to be learned. For each competency students are first presented with
clearly stated learning objectives from one or more of the three learning
domains, cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Objectives are
developed using Bloom’s taxonomic approach.
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood, CO:
Libraries Unllimited, p. 289-290.
http://allen.warren.net/ml.htm, (retrieved June 29, 2007)
Example From My Field
Students are next presented with underlying theory related to the
specific competency. An initial assessment of theoretical knowledge
follows in the form of a written exam. This allows the instructor to
determine what particular areas of instruction the student is having
difficulty with.
Students are then assigned to specific lab groups to participate in
relevant learning experiences which have been developed for each
competency. Groups are based on similarly demonstrated strengths or
weaknesses of the students assigned to the group. Additionally, selfpaced learning modules may be assigned to groups weak in specific
theoretical aspects of a competency. For example, students weak in the
fundamentals of asepsis (as demonstrated by poor performance on the
written assessment) may be assigned to watch videos or computerbased tutorials.
Example From My Field
Each small group then works under the guidance of an instructor to
learn to apply theory to simulated practice. The specific skill is
demonstrated by the instructor so that the students may model her
behavior. Students will use drill-and-practice to improve fluency in
each skill. Using fading, in the early stages of learning, the instructor
may give cues. As learning progresses, cues will become less frequent.
It is important for students to receive prompt feedback regarding
deficiencies so that corrective measures can be instituted and “bad
behaviors” can be eliminated. Even those who demonstrate initial
mastery must continue to practice (overlearning) so that behaviors
become automatic. Through shaping the instructor will have reinforced
successive approximations of the goal by giving praise as the student
completes each successive step of the process. Ultimately, the student
will master the complex behavior of preparing the entire room by
chaining each of the simpler tasks involved.
Example From My Field
Finally, criterion-referenced assessment measures performance in
terms of the specifically stated learning objectives. Assessment of
theoretical knowledge is through comprehensive written examination.
Authentic assessment in a laboratory situation (students demonstrate all
tasks expected in the surgical setting and are evaluated using a rubric)
demonstrates application of theory to practice. Students who
demonstrate mastery of fundamental skills are assigned to the clinical
setting where ultimately, in order to graduate from the program, they will
be expected to synthesize theory and practice in new, increasingly
complex situations. Students who fail to demonstrate mastery of
fundamental skills are reassigned in groups or worked with individually
for remediation.