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ILLUSTR ATED OVERVIEW OF MA JOR THEORIES OF PERSONALIT Y
THEORIST AND
ORIENTATION
SOURCE OF DATA
AND OBSERVATIONS
© Peter Aprahamian/Corbis
A PSYCHODYNAMIC
VIEW
Sigmund Freud
KEY
MOTIVATIONAL
FORCES
Sex and aggression; need to
reduce tension resulting
from internal conflicts
Case studies from clinical practice of
psychoanalysis
A BEHAVIORAL
VIEW
Courtesy of Professor Rick Stalling and
Bradley University. Photo by Duane Zehr.
Laboratory experiments, primarily with animals
B. F. Skinner
A HUMANISTIC
VIEW
A BIOLOGICAL
VIEW
Hans Eysenck
400
CHAPTER 11
© Tom Stewart/Corbis
Actualizing tendency (motive to develop capacities,
and experience personal
growth) and self-actualizing
tendency (motive to
maintain self-concept and
behave in ways that are
consistent with self-concept)
Twin, family, and adoption studies of heritability;
factor analysis studies of personality structure
© Daly & Newton/Stone/Getty Images
Carl Rogers
Case studies from clinical practice of
client-centered therapy
Pursuit of primary (unlearned) and secondary (learned)
reinforcers; priorities depend
on personal history
No specific motivational
forces singled out
MODEL OF PERSONALITY
STRUCTURE
Three interacting components (id, ego, superego)
operating at three levels of consciousness
VIEW OF PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
EGO
PRECONSCIOUS
SUPEREGO
UNCONSCIOUS
ID
Collections of response
tendencies tied to specific
stimulus situations
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Self-concept, which may or may not mesh well with
actual experience
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Congruence
Incongruence
Hierarchy of traits, with specific traits derived from
more fundamental, general traits
,
© David Young-Wollf/PhotoEdit
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Personality evolves
gradually over the
life span (not in
stages); responses
(such as extraverted
joking) followed by
reinforcement
(such as appreciative laughter)
become more
frequent
Children who receive unconditional love have less
need to be defensive; they develop more
accurate, congruent self-concept; conditional
love fosters incongruence
© blue jean images/Getty Images
.
&
&
.
© Nancy Sheehan/PhotoEdit
CONSCIOUS
Emphasis on fixation or progress
through psychosexual stages;
experiences in
early childhood
(such as toilet
training) can leave
lasting mark on
adult personality
Emphasis on unfolding of genetic blueprint with
maturation; inherited predispositions interact
with learning
experiences
ROOTS OF
DISORDERS
Unconscious
fixations and
unresolved
conflicts from
childhood, usually
centering on sex
and aggression
Maladaptive
behavior due to
faulty learning;
the ”symptom” is
the problem, not
a sign of underlying disease
Incongruence
between self and
actual experience
(inaccurate
self-concept);
over-dependence
on others for
approval and sense
of worth
Genetic vulnerability activated in
part by environmental factors
Personality: Theory, Research, and Assessment
401
ILLUSTR ATED OVERVIEW OF THREE T YPES OF LEARNING
TYPE OF LEARNING
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
PROCEDURE
DIAGRAM
A neutral stimulus (for
example, a tone) is
paired with an unconditioned stimulus (such
as food) that elicits an
unconditioned response
(salivation).
RESULT
The neutral stimulus
becomes a conditioned
stimulus that elicits the
conditioned response
(for example, a tone
triggers salivation).
Tone
Ivan Pavlov
Salivation
Meat powder
OPERANT
CONDITIONING
If reinforced, the response is
strengthened (emitted more
frequently); if punished, the
response is weakened
(emitted less frequently).
In a stimulus situation, a
response is followed by
favorable consequences
(reinforcement) or unfavorable consequences
(punishment).
Press lever
B. F. Skinner
OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
Food delivery or shock
The observer stores a mental
representation of the modeled
response; the observer’s tendency to emit the response
may be strengthened or
weakened, depending on the
consequences observed.
An observer attends
to a model’s behavior
(for example, aggressive bargaining) and
its consequences (for
example, a good
buy on a car).
Albert Bandura
Bargain
assertively
214
Good buy on car
CHAPTER 6
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EXAMPLES
IN ANIMALS
© Bettmann/Corbis
Mostly (but not always)
involuntary reflexes and
visceral responses
Casino patrons tend to exhibit high,
steady rates of gambling, as most games
of chance involve complex variable-ratio
schedules of reinforcement.
© David Falconer/SuperStock
Courtesy of Animal Behavior Enterprises, Inc.
and Marian Bailey
Trained animals perform remarkable feats
because they have been reinforced for
gradually learning closer and closer
approximations of responses they do not
normally emit.
Mostly (but not always)
voluntary, spontaneous
responses
Little Albert learns to fear a white rat and
other white, furry objects through
classical conditioning.
Archives of the History of American Psychology,
The University of Akron
Dogs learn to salivate to the sound of
a tone that has been paired with meat
powder.
EXAMPLES
IN HUMANS
A dog spontaneously learns to mimic a
human ritual.
© AP Images/Itsuo Inouye
Mostly voluntary responses,
often consisting of novel
and complex sequences
A young girl performs a response that she
has acquired through observation.
es
© Tom Morrison/Stone/Getty Images
TYPICAL KINDS
OF RESPONSES
Learning
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