Download Effects of Brain Damage (cont`d.)

Chapter 4
Brain Anatomy
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Terminology to Describe the Nervous
System
• Terms used to describe location when referring
to the nervous system include:
– Ventral: towards the chest/stomach
– Dorsal: towards the back
– Anterior: towards the front
– Posterior: towards the rear
– Medial: towards the midline
– Lateral: away from the midline
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For an interactive demo on planes for anatomical directions:
http://www.med.harvard.edu/aanlib/cases/caseNA/pb9.htm
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Contralateral
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Ipsilateral
• For example if the motor
tracts (set of axons) in
the right side of the
spinal cord are
damaged, there will be a
motor loss in the right
side of the body.
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Terminology to Describe the Nervous
System
• Central nervous system (CNS): the brain and
the spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): connects
the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the
body; has two parts
– Somatic nervous system: consists of axons
conveying messages from the sense organs
to the CNS and from the CNS to the
muscles for controlling muscle movements
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Terminology to Describe the Nervous
System (cont’d.)
– Autonomic nervous
system: controls the
heart, intestines,
and other organs
– Has some cell
bodies within the
brain or spinal cord
or in clusters along
the sides of the
spinal cord
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The Autonomic Nervous System
• The autonomic nervous system sends and
receives messages to regulate the automatic
behaviors of the body (heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration, digestion, etc.)
• Regulate the body's unconscious actions
• Divided into two subsystems:
– The sympathetic nervous system
– The parasympathetic nervous system
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The Autonomic Nervous
System (cont’d.)
• The sympathetic nervous system is a network
of nerves that prepares the organs for
rigorous activity:
– Increases heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, etc. (“fight or flight” response)
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The Autonomic Nervous System
(cont’d.)
• The parasympathetic nervous system facilitates
vegetative (nutrition, respiration, etc.),
nonemergency response
– responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest"
activities when the body is at rest
– Decreases functions increased by the
sympathetic nervous system
– Dominant during our relaxed states
– Works to save energy (decrease blood pressure
and heart rate, increase digestive rate)
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The Autonomic Nervous System
(cont’d.)
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The Autonomic Nervous System
(cont’d.)
• The sympathetic nervous system mostly uses
norepinephrine
• Parasympathetic nervous system mostly
release acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
• Because the two systems use different
transmitters, certain drugs excite or inhibit
one system or the other.
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The Autonomic Nervous System
(cont’d.)
• For example, cold remedies exert most of
their effects by blocking parasympathetic
activity.
• Because the flow of sinus fluids is a
parasympathetic response, drugs that block
the parasympathetic system inhibit sinus flow.
• The side effects of cold remedies stem from
anti-parasympathetic activities:They increase
heart rate and inhibit salivation and digestion
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The Spinal Cord
• Spinal cord: part of the CNS found within the
spinal column (or called spine)
– Communicates with the sense organs and
muscles, except those of the head
– Bell-Magendie law: entering dorsal roots
carry sensory information and exiting
ventral roots carry motor information
– Cell bodies of the sensory neurons are
located in clusters of neurons outside the
spinal cord, called the dorsal root ganglia
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The Spinal Cord (cont’d.)
• The spinal cord is comprised of:
• Grey matter: located in the center of the spinal cord
and is densely packed with cell bodies and
dendrites
• White matter: composed mostly of myelinated
axons that carries information from the gray matter
to the brain or other areas of the spinal cord. It is
the myelin that gives the white matter its glossy
white color.
• Each segment sends sensory information to the
brain and receives motor commands
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Grey matter: the darker inner parts
White matter: the whiter outer parts
Grey matter: the darker outer parts
White matter: the inner whiter parts
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The Hindbrain
• Three major divisions of the brain include:
– Hindbrain
– Midbrain
– Forebrain
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The Hindbrain (cont’d.)
• The hindbrain consists of the:
– Medulla
– Pons
– Cerebellum
• Located at the posterior portion of the brain
• Hindbrain structures, the midbrain, and other
central structures of the brain combine and
make up the brain stem
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The Hindbrain (cont’d.)
• The medulla:
– Located just above the spinal cord and could
be regarded as an enlarged extension of the
spinal cord
– Responsible for vital reflexes such as
breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation,
coughing and sneezing
– Damage to the medulla is fatal
• Cranial nerves: allow the medulla to control
sensations from the head, muscle movements in
the head, and many parasympathetic outputs to
the organs
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The Hindbrain (cont’d.)
• Pons
– Lies on each side of the medulla (ventral
and anterior)
– Along with the medulla, contains the
reticular formation and raphe system
– Works in conjunction to increase arousal
and readiness of other parts of the brain
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The Hindbrain (cont’d.)
• The reticular formation:
– one of several brain areas that control the
motor areas of the spinal cord
– Sends output to much of the cerebral
cortex, selectively increasing arousal and
attention
• The raphe system also sends axons to much
of the forebrain, modifying the brain’s
readiness to respond to stimuli
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The Hindbrain (cont’d.)
• Cerebellum:
– Structure located in the hindbrain with
many deep folds
– Helps regulate motor movement, balance,
and coordination
– Also important for shifting attention
between auditory and visual stimuli
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The Midbrain
• The midbrain contains the following structures:
– Tectum: roof of the midbrain, responsible for
auditory and visual reflexes.
– Superior colliculus & inferior colliculus:
processes sensory information
– Tegmentum: contains nuclei for cranial
nerves and part of the reticular formation
– Substantia nigra: gives rise to the dopaminecontaining pathway facilitating readiness for
movement
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The Forebrain
• The forebrain is the most anterior and
prominent part of the mammalian brain and
consists of two cerebral hemispheres
– Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical
regions
– Outer portion is known as the “cerebral
cortex”
– Each side receives sensory information
and controls motor movement from the
opposite (contralateral) side of the body
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The Forebrain (cont’d.)
• The limbic system consists of a number of
other interlinked structures that form a border
around the brainstem
– Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus,
hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate
gyrus of the cerebral cortex
– Associated with motivation, emotion,
drives, and aggression
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The Forebrain (cont’d.)
• Subcortical regions are structures
of the brain that lie underneath
the cortex
• Subcortical structures of the
forebrain include:
– Thalamus: receive their input
from sensory systems, such as
vision, and transmit information
to specific areas of the
cerebral cortex
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The Forebrain (cont’d.)
– Hypothalamus
• Small area near the base of the brain
• Conveys messages to the pituitary gland
to alter the release of hormones
• Associated with behaviors such as
eating, drinking, sexual behavior and
other motivated behaviors
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The Forebrain (cont’d.)
– Hypothalamus
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The Forebrain (cont’d.)
• Pituitary gland: hormone producing gland
found at the base of the hypothalamus
• Basal ganglia: comprised of the caudate
nucleus, the putamen, and the globus
pallidus
– Associated with planning of motor
movement, and aspects of memory and
emotional expression
– Also important for attention, language
planning
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The Forebrain (cont’d.)
• Pituitary gland: hormone producing gland
found at the base of the hypothalamus
• Basal ganglia: comprised of the caudate
nucleus, the putamen, and the globus
pallidus
– Associated with planning of motor
movement, and aspects of memory and
emotional expression
– Also important for attention, language
planning
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The Forebrain (cont’d.)
• Basal forebrain is comprised of several
structures that lie on the dorsal surface of the
forebrain
• Contains the nucleus basalis:
– Receives input from the hypothalamus and
basal ganglia
– Sends axons that release acetylcholine to
the cerebral cortex
– Key part of the brains system for arousal,
wakefulness, and attention
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The Forebrain (cont’d.)
Basal forebrain
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The Forebrain (cont’d.)
• Hippocampus is a large structure located
between the thalamus and cerebral cortex
– Toward the posterior portion of the
forebrain
– Critical for storing certain types of memory,
particularly new events
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The Ventricles
• The central canal is a fluid-filled channel in
the center of the spinal cord
• The ventricles are four fluid-filled cavities
within the brain containing cerebrospinal fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear fluid
found in the brain and spinal cord
– Provides “cushioning” for the brain
– Reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the
brain and spinal cord
• Meninges are membranes that surround the
brain and spinal cord
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The Ventricles
• The brain has no pain receptors, but the
meninges do
• Swollen blood vessels in the meninges are
the cause of migraine headaches
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The Cerebral Cortex
• The cerebral cortex: most prominent part of
the mammalian brain; consists of the cellular
layers on the outer surface of the cerebral
hemispheres
– Divided into two halves
– Joined by two bundles of axons called the
corpus callosum and the anterior
commissure
– More highly developed in humans than
other species
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• If we compare mammalian species, we see
differences in the size of the cerebral cortex
and the degree of folding
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The Cerebral Cortex
• As the proportion devoted to the forebrain
increases, the relative sizes of the midbrain
and medulla decrease.
• The cerebellum occupies a remarkably
constant percentage—approximately 13% of
any mammalian brain.
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Organization of the Cerebral Cortex
• Contains up to six distinct laminae (layers)
• There are variations in the thickness of the respective
layers from area to area
• For example, because the stellate cells of layer IV
are specialized for receiving sensory signals from the
thalamus, layer IV is extremely thick in areas of
sensory cortex.
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Organization of the Cerebral Cortex
• Cells of the cortex are also divided into columns
• Neurons in a given vertical column often form a
mini-circuit that performs a single function
• Somatosensory cortex below has function in
sense of touch, heat, pain
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Organization of the Cerebral Cortex
(cont’d.)
• The four lobes of the cerebral cortex include
the following:
– Occipital lobe
– Parietal lobe
– Temporal lobe
– Frontal lobe
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(Deep sulcus)
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The Occipital Lobe
•
•
•
•
Located at the posterior end of the cortex
Highly responsible for visual input
Known as striate cortex or primary visual cortex
Damage can result in cortical blindness
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The Occipital Lobe
• A person with cortical blindness has normal eyes
and pupillary reflexes, but no conscious visual
perception and no visual imagery (not even in
dreams).
• People who suffer eye damage become blind, but if
they have an intact occipital cortex and previous
visual experience, they can still imagine visual
scenes and can still have visual dreams
• The eyes provide the stimulus and the visual cortex
provides the experience.
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The Parietal Lobe
• Contains the postcentral gyrus (“primary
somatosensory cortex”)
– Primary target for touch sensations and
information from muscle-stretch receptors
and joint receptors
• Also responsible for processing and
integrating information about eye, head and
body positions from information sent from
muscles and joints
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The Parietal Lobe (cont’d.)
• Brain surgeons sometimes anesthetize the
scalp but leave the brain awake. If during this
process they lightly stimulate the postcentral
gyrus, people report tingling sensations on
the opposite side of the body.
• The parietal lobe is essential for spatial
information as well as numerical information
– Example: using one’s fingers to count
represents an overlap of spatial and
numerical tasks
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The Temporal Lobe
• Target for auditory information and processing spoken
language (left temporal lobe)
• Also responsible for complex aspects of vision,
(including perception of movement and face
recognition) and some emotional and motivational
behaviors
• Klüver-Bucy syndrome associated with temporal lobe
damage (monkeys fail to display normal fears and
anxieties after temporal lobe damage).
• They put almost anything they find into their mouths
and attempt to pick up snakes and lighted matches
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The Frontal Lobe
• Contains the prefrontal cortex and the precentral
gyrus
• Precentral gyrus: also known as the primary
motor cortex; responsible for the control of fine
motor movement
• Prefrontal cortex: the integration center for all
sensory information and other areas of the cortex
(most anterior portion of the frontal lobe),
because its dendrites have up to 16 times as
many dendritic spines as neurons in other
cortical areas
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Frontal Lobe (cont’d.)
– Prefrontal cortex (cont’d.)
• Responsible for higher functions such as
abstract thinking and planning
• Responsible for our ability to remember
recent events and information (“working
memory”)
• People with damage to the prefrontal
cortex exhibit delayed-response task:
have to respond to something they see
or hear after a delay
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How Do the Parts Work Together?
• Various parts of the cerebral cortex do not
work independently of each other
– All areas of the brain communicate with
each other, but no single central processor
exists that puts it all together
• The binding problem refers to how the visual,
auditory, and other areas of the brain produce
a perception of a single object
– Perhaps the brain binds activity in different
areas when they produce synchronous
waves of activity
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
How Do the Parts Work Together?
• For binding to occur:
– A person perceives two sensations as
happening at the same time and in the
same place
– Example: a ventriloquist uses the visual
stimulus to alter the response of the
auditory cortex (see this video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JLjYJE
Xl8f4 )
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How Do the Parts Work Together?
• If you see a light flash once while you hear
two beeps, you will sometimes think you saw
the light flash twice (see the illusion in this
video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3Z1cxA
2Tp0)
• Try the illusion also with no sound.
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How Do the Parts Work Together?
• People with damage to the parietal cortex
have trouble locating objects in space
• If they see a display such as
they might report seeing a green triangle and a
red square
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
How Do the Parts Work Together?
See also the rubber hand illusion:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sxwn1w7MJvk
• Subjects were positioned with their left hand hidden out of sight.
They saw a lifelike rubber left hand in front of them.
• The experimenters stroked both the subjects hidden left hand
and the visible rubber hand with a paintbrush.
• The experiment showed that if the two hands were stroked
synchronously and in the same direction, the subjects began to
experience the rubber hand as their own. When asked to use
their right hand to point to their left hand, most of the time they
pointed toward the rubber hand.
• If the real and rubber hands were stroked in different directions
or at different times, the subjects did not experience the rubber
hand as their own.
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Research Methods
• Main categories of research methods to study
the brain include those that attempt to:
– Examine the effects of brain damage
– Examine the effects of stimulating a brain
area
– Record brain activity during behavior
– Correlate brain anatomy with behavior
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Effects of Brain Damage
• Brain damage can produce an inability to
recognize faces, an inability to perceive
motion, changes in emotional responses, and
many more effects
– Ablation: destroying tissue and leaving it in
place
– Lesion: damage to a brain area
– Stereotaxic instrument: used to damage
structures in the brain
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Effects of Brain Damage (cont’d.)
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Effects of Brain Damage (cont’d.)
• Transcranial magnetic stimulation: application
of an intense magnetic field to a portion of the
scalp to temporarily deactivate neurons below
the magnet by depolarising neurons
– Allows researchers to study behavior with
a brain area active, then inactive, then
active again
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Effects
of Brain Stimulation
• Stimulation of a brain area should increase
behavior
• Optogenetics: a technique that allows
researchers to turn on activity in targeted
neurons by a device that shines a laser within
the brain
• Electrodes can probe the brain of a person
undergoing brain surgery
• A limitation is that complex behaviors depend
on temporal pattern of activity in many areas
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Recording Brain Activity
• Recording brain activity involves using a
variety of noninvasive methods, including:
– Electroencephalograph (EEG): records
electrical activity produced by various brain
regions
– Can produce evoked potentials that selfreports sometimes do not reveal
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Recording Brain Activity (cont’d.)
• Magnetoencephalograph (MEG): similar to
EEG but measures faint magnetic fields
generated by brain activity instead
• Positron-emission tomography (PET): records
emission of radioactivity from injected
radioactive chemicals to produce a highresolution image
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Recording Brain Activity (cont’d.)
• Functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI): modified version of an MRI that uses
oxygen consumption in the brain to provide a
moving and detailed picture
– Safer and less expensive than PET
– Comparison tasks are used to compare the
brain pictures while person is engaged in
different activities and recordings can allow
researchers to predict the behavior
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
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© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Correlating Brain Anatomy with
Behavior
• The process of relating skull anatomy to behavior is
known as phrenology
– One of the first ways used to study the brain
– Focused on measurements of the human skull,
based on the concept that the brain is the organ
of the mind, and that certain brain areas have
localized, specific functions or modules.
– Although both of those ideas have a basis in
reality,phrenology extrapolated beyond empirical
knowledge in a way that departed from science.
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Correlating Brain Anatomy with
Behavior (cont’d.)
• Correlating brain activity with behavior can
involve the identifying of peculiar behaviors
and looking for abnormal brain structures or
function
– These abnormal brain structures can be
identified using:
• Computerized axial tomography (CAT
scan)
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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Correlating Brain Anatomy with
Behavior (cont’d.)
• Computerized axial tomography (CAT scan)
involves the injection of a dye (contrast
material) into the blood and a passage of xrays through the head
– Scanner is rotated slowly until a
measurement has been taken at each
angle and a computer constructs the image
– Used to identify tumors and abnormalities
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): involves
the application of a powerful magnetic field to
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. This edition is intended for use outside of the U.S. only, with content that may be different from the U.S. Edition.
May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Brain Size and Intelligence
• Research has not supported that a larger
brain is correlated with higher intelligence
• Brain-to-body ratio research has some limited
validity
• Moderate correlation exists between IQ and
brain size (.3)
• Amount of grey and white matter may also
play a role
• IQ is correlated with amount of grey matter
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Brain Size and Intelligence (cont’d.)
• Men have larger brains than women but IQ is
the same
• Various differences in specific brain
structures exist between men and women,
but the number of neurons are about the
same for both
• Explanations in differences in cognitive
abilities can perhaps be better explained by
interest than abilities (i.e., more male chess
masters because more boys play chess)
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Brain Size and Intelligence (cont’d.)
• Greater resemblance among twins for both
brain size and IQ
• For monozygotic twins, the size of one twin’s
brain correlates significantly with the other
twin’s IQ
• Therefore, whatever genes that control the
brain also relate to IQ
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May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.