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ANNO DOMINI
"Augustus won over the soldiers with gifts, the populace with cheap corn, and all men with the sweets of
repose, and so grew greater by degrees, while he concentrated in himself the functions of the Senate, the
magistrates and the laws"
Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55-120)
I.
Introduction
In today's discussion we will examine the rise of the Roman Republic. Our goal is to trace how
the city-state of Rome was able to expand and impose its authority over the Mediterranean world.
We will also trace how this republic moved towards rule by one. Finally, we will trace the rise of
Christianity within the confines of the Roman Empire. Keep in mind that once the western part of
the Roman Empire collapsed Christianity would fill the political void left behind. This will open a
new period in the West that many historians refer to as the Europe of the Popes. By the time we
finish this discussion you should be able to do the following:
1. Explain the impact the Punic Wars had on Rome's socioeconomic and political future.
2. Analyze the factors that moved Rome from a Republic to rule by one.
3. Explain the rise of Christianity and its impact on Rome and the West.
II.
Rome: The Beginnings
A. Before the formation of Rome, Italy had been settled by a variety of people: the Etruscans (c.
700 BCE), the Phoenicians, and the Greeks.
1. The Etruscans are believed by many to have originated from east or central Europe.
a) They settled in the northern foothills of Italy and founded a series of citystates. There was a cultural exchange between the Etruscans, Greeks, and the
Italic people.
2. Phoenician contact with this region of the Mediterranean is believed to have begun as
early as the 11th century BCE.
a) The archeological record suggests that Phoenician merchants from Tyre and
Biblos had worked their way as far west as Iberia.
b) Phoenicians from Tyre founded Carthage in North Africa in the 9th century
BCE. This colony would be engaged in an epic struggle with Rome over control
of the Mediterranean.
3. The Greeks also established colonies in Italy. Like the Phoenicians, they also
eventually traveled as far west as Iberia.
B. The history of Rome's foundation is difficult to unravel. This is due in large part to its
intermixing with legend. Legend has it that Romulus founded the city of Rome between 754 and
748 BCE.
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1. Titius Livy's (c. 59 BCE-17 CE) Roman History provides details of this legend.
2. With time, Rome came under the control of an Etruscan dynasty. In 510 BCE, the
last of the Etruscan rulers, Lucius Tarquinius "Supurbus" (c. 534-510 BCE), was expelled
from Rome brining an end to Etruscan rule (509 BCE) over this city.
a) Of Tarquinius, Livy wrote, ". . . he had nothing whatever by which to make
good his claim to the crown except actual violence . . . he had no hope of winning
the affections the citizens, he had to maintain his dominion by fear."
b) Rome's experience under Etruscan rule helps explain its dislike for rule by
one.
3. Once the Etruscan monarchy was removed, Rome moved towards a Republican form
of government.
a) Social tensions between Patricians and the Plebeians dominated the early
history of Rome. The Patricians (patres/fathers) were wealthy landowners who
dominated the affairs of state, provided leadership in war, and interpreted law.
The Plebeians were the common people of Rome who did not share in patrician
privileges.
b) Over time, representation was granted to the plebeians in the form of
Concilium Plebis (471 BCE ) = assembly. In 451 Romans/magistrates (College
of Decemvirs), wrote a "constitution" referred to as the Twelve Tables. The
Twelve Tables dealt with property rights, legal status, and marriage issues. This
meant law would no longer be arbitrary. Livy stated that making laws meant ". . .
liberty will be equal for all, from the highest to the lowest. . . "
c) The Lex Canuleia (445 BCE) allowed for intermarriage. Tribunes were
created to protect and represent plebeian interests in Senate.
d) The Senatus Populusque Romanus (Roman Senate and People) was the most
important institution. It originated from a council of noble elders.
III.
Expansion under the Republic (3rd century BCE)
A. Having attained political stability, Rome next embarked on expanding its territorial
borders. The third century, plagued by the Punic Wars (waged against Carthage),
witnessed the creation of the Roman Empire as a consequence of this war. Also during
this period Rome experienced a socioeconomic and political crisis caused by its
expansion. Slowly, this led to the rule by one.
1. Polybius's (b. 202 BCE) Histories is one of the sources used by historians to
reconstruct the history of the Punic Wars.
a) Polybius believed that Rome's greatness lay in its institutions and
military. He writes extensively on them in his work.
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Government of Rome (264 BCE)
ROMAN CITIZENS
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Centuriate Assembly
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2 Censors 2 Consuls Praetors 2 Aediles Questors Priests
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SENATE
Tribal Assembly
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2 Aidiles
10 Tribunes
CENTURIATE ASSEMBLY: laws, treaties, declaration of war
Censors: contracts for temple/road maintenance, list of citizens for taxes/military and led religious ceremony
Consuls: generals, direction of government
Praetors: judicial and governors
Adiles: supervise public markets and roads
Questors: financial officials
Priests: determination of will of gods and calendar
TRIBAL ASSEMBLY: Plebiscites
Adiles: supervised road and food supply in Rome
Tribunes: protect plebiscites
SENATE: advisory body composed of ex-magistrates
2. The Punic Wars (264-241, 218-201, 149-146 BCE) between Rome and
Carthage appears to have originated over economic interests. Carthage had
initially focused its expansionist efforts in the eastern part of North Africa. In 264
BCE, however, Carthage laid siege to Messina (Sicily) causing the First Punic
War. The war lasted for twenty-three years until 241 BCE when a peace was
secured.
a) As a result of this first war, Sicily became a Roman province, Rome
became a maritime power, and Carthage was forced to focus its efforts in
Iberia. Under the leadership of Hamilcar Barca, the Carthaginians
established a new center of power in Iberia called Carthago Nova
(Cartagena).
3. War between Carthage and Rome resumed in 218 BCE, when Hannibal
Barca laid siege to the city-state of Saguntum, an ally of Rome. Hannibal’s
actions broke Carthage’s treaty with Rome.
a) Polybius details these events in his Histories,and the choices left to
Rome: "The truth is that when the Romans heard of the disaster at
Saguntum, they at once elected envoys, whom they dispatched in all
haste to Carthage with the offer of two alternatives. One appeared to the
Carthaginians to involve disgrace as well as injury if they accepted it,
while the other was the beginning of a great struggle and of great
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dangers. For one of these alternatives was the surrender of Hannibal and
his staff to Rome, and the other was war."
b) This war raged in Iberia, Italy, and Africa. Hannibal’s early success
in this war ended when P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (c. 236-183 BCE)
defeated him at Battle of Zama (202 BCE).
c) Polybius explained that this point, ". . . The Roman State was able to
extend its domination over nearly all the inhabited world, and that in
under fifty-three years."
B. From 133 to 30 BCE Rome experienced a revolutionary period as Republican
institutions sought to deal with the impact of conquests and expansion.
1. Patricians and wealthy plebeians accessed conquered lands through leasing.
This led to the creation of latifundias (large estates).
a) Both the move toward latifundia and competition from farmers from
abroad contributed to the decline of the small farmer in Rome.
b) Lengthy military service also created financial woes for farmers.
c) Many displaced farmers migrated to Rome creating social and
political tensions.
2. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (163-133 BCE) was the first to attempt to
address Rome's grave economic and social ills by promoting agrarian reforms
(legislation). Tiberius wanted to transfer public land to displaced farmers. His
resolutions produced what is known as the Gracchan Crisis (133-121 BCE).
a) He introduced a bill that limited the individual possession of the ager
publicus, reduce the Senate's monopoly of the ager publicus, and
redistributed reclaimed lands among the poor.
b) Tiberius sought reelection as tribune thus breaking with Roman
political tradition.
c) Plutarch's Tiberius Gracchus and Gauis Gracchus explains. "Thus
armed, they made towards Tiberius, knocking down those whom they
found in front of him . . . . Tiberius tried to save himself by flight. As he
was running, he was stopped by one who caught hold of his gown . . . .
And stumbling over those who before had been knocked down, as he was
endeavoring to get up again, Publius Satureius, a tribune, one of his
colleagues, was observed to give the first fatal stroke . . . . This, we are
told, was the first sedition amongst the Romans, since the abrogation of
kingly government, that ended in the effusion of blood."
C. According to Appian, during the last century of the Roman Republic "Violence ruled
everything." This was also a time when personal advancement was made possible by the
army. Political power depended on support of the military.
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1. The military reforms introduced by Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE) in 107 BCE
set Rome on the course described by Appian.
a) Marius eliminated property qualification for military service making
it possible for the urban poor to serve. Soldiers now also served long
enlistments that kept them employed. Those who served were paid,
shared in the captured goods, and were granted land after 16 years of
service
b) Thus the Roman military was transformed from a militia to a
professional fighting force. This also meant that the attachment of
soldiers was to their commanders and not the state/senate.
2. Julius Caesar's (101-44 BCE) rise to power exemplifies just how loyal armies
were to their leaders. Available to historians wishing to explore the rise of Caesar
his works the Gallic War and the Civil War.
a) The conquest of Gaul (58-51 BCE) served as Caesar's springboard to
success. From these campaigns, Caesar attained wealth, military fame,
and most important, a devoted army.
b) Caesar, along with Pompey and Crassus, created the First
Triumvirate (60-53 BCE). It essentially took control of Rome away from
the Senate. However, the eventual collapse of the First Triumvirate
would create conflict between Caesar and Pompey.
c) In 49 BCE, the Senate refused Caesar a consulship and asked him to
disband his army. Caesar, instead turned to his army and and gave the
following speach, "I have been your commander for nine years; under
my leadership, your efforts on Rome s behalf have been crowned with
good fortune; you have won countless battles and have pacified the
whole of Gaul and Germany. Now, I ask you to defend my reputation
against the assaults of my enemies .” Will his military in tact, Caesar
responded to the demands of the Senate by crossing the Rubicon River
and marching on Rome. Rome was now plunged into a civil war.
d) At the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BCE) Caesar finally defeated Pompey,
and with him the Senate. In 46 BCE Caesar received the title Dictator for
life. This confirmed the fear of many that Caesar sought to be king. This
prompted a group of senators to conspire and assassinate Caesar in 44
BCE (the Ides of March). Brutus (leader of conspiracy), in a letter to
Cicero, explained that "I was neither properly a full citizen while Caesar
was alive, except when I had resolved upon doing that deed . . . ."
D. The assassination of Caesar once again plunged Rome into a civil war. A Second
Triumvirate was formed between Marc Antony, Marcus Lepidus and Gaius Octavius
(Caesar's great nephew) against the Senate. It assumed control of Rome and defeated the
forces of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in 42 BCE. Like the First Triumvirate, the second
would also be dissolved because of a power struggle.
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1. At the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) Octavius defeated Marc Antony brining an
end to his opposition.
2. Unopposed, Octavian (r. 27 BCE-14 CE) now moved towards forming the
Principate. He was granted the titles of Augustus (Revered), Imperator
(commander of the army), and Princeps (first among equals).
3. The Roman historian Tacitus summarized the consequence of Rome's move
toward a Principate in the following passage, "At home all was tranquil, and
there were magistrates with the same titles, there was a younger generation,
sprung up since the victory of Actium, and even many of the older men had been
born during the civil wars. How few were left who had seen the republic! Thus
the State had been revolutionized and there was not a vestige left of the old
morality. Stript of equality, all looked up to the commands of a sovereign with
the least of apprehension . . . ."
IV.
The Age of Emperors (31 BCE-476 CE) and the Rise of Christianity
A. With the collapse of the Republic, the Roman Empire came to be ruled by emperors.
This period witnessed the rise of "dynasties" such as the Julio-Claudians and the
Antonines. The Roman Empire in the age of emperors grew even larger than that under
the Republic. This period, however, would also witness the decline of Rome as an
economic crisis, a political crisis, and invasions by the "Goths" undermined the Empire.
Christianity also flourished and became Rome's state religion during this period. There is
a wealth of sources available for the study of this phase of Rome's history.
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1. Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55 -117 CE), recognized by many as Rome's greatest
historian, produced works such as Germania (describes the geography, customs,
and tribes of the Germans), Historiae (covered 69-96 CE: only four books
survive covering 69-10 CE), and Annales (concerned with political life and loss
of liberty under the Julio-Cludians).
2. Gauis Suetonius Tranquillus (c. 70-140 CE) wrote biographies. His most
important work was The Twelve Caesars. It covered great lives of and the lives
of emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian (d. 96 CE).
3. Ammianus Marcellinus's (330-395 CE) Histories was comprised of thirtyone books of which only eighteen survive. They cover Roman history from 353378 CE. His work provides a political and diplomatic history of Rome.
B. Beginning about 258 CE, Rome's frontiers in the West witnessed the migration of the
"Goths". Territories under Roman control were devastated by these migrations. This lead to the
Third Century Crisis. Jordanes described the Goths as a "swarm of bees" in his History of the
Goths (6th century CE). In the east, the Sassanids began to pressure Rome as well.
1. In addition to foreign wars, civil war was added to the chaos of the 3rd century. Prior
to this period, Rome had maintained stability through the leadership of individuals or
dynasties. This changed after the Severan Dynasty (193-235 CE).
a) This chaos was brought about by the military. The military replaced
emperors at will. Holding their supreme leader responsible for their woes, the
soldiers frequently intervened and thus deprived the Roman Empire of a dynasty.
b) Between 235-284 CE, Rome had twenty Emperors!
2. The political instability and the pressure from the Goths created an economic crisis.
a) The sacking of towns, and the destruction of crops and herds were primary
caused of this crisis. Gold disappeared as it was hoarded by the wealthy.
3. These economic difficulties resulted in a social crisis as the poor were further
impoverished. Could Rome be ready for religious change?
C. The New Testament contains the Christian scriptures. It is composed of the following:
a) Gospels (Good News) = it tells of the beginnings of Christianity
through the life of Jesus of Nazareth.
b) Acts = it tells of spread of Christianity through the apostles.
c) Epistles = they are composed of letter written by Christian leaders
that detail the beliefs, practices, and ethics of Christianity.
d) Revelation = it deals with the culmination of Christianity.
2. There is mention of Jesus of Nazareth (b. 4 BCE-6 CE) outside of the New
Testament. These source include the following:
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a) Tacitus (b. 55 CE): Annals 15.44/47, " ...neither human resources,
nor imperial generosity, nor appeasement of the gods, eliminated the
sinister suspicion that the fire had been deliberately started. To stop the
rumor, NERO, made scapegoats--and punished with every refinement the
notoriously depraved CHRISTIANS (as they were popularly called).
Their originator, CHRIST, had been executed in Tiberius' reign by the
Procurator of Judaea, PONTIUS PILATUS (governor from 26 to 36
A.D.). But in spite of this temporary setback, the deadly superstition had
broken out again, not just in Judaea (where the mischief had started) but
even in Rome. All degraded and shameful practices collect and flourish
in the capital. First, NERO had the self-admitted Christians arrested.
Then, on their information, large numbers of others were condemned-not so much for starting fires as because of their hatred for the human
race. Their deaths were made amusing. Dressed in wild animals skins,
they were torn to pieces by dogs, or crucified, or made into torches to be
set on fire after dark as illumination.... Despite their guilt as Christians,
and the ruthless punishment it deserved, the victims were pitied. For it
was felt that they were being sacrificed to one man's brutality rather than
to the national interest."
b) Suetonius (c. 70-122), Life of the Emperor Claudius, chapter 25:
"Since the Jews were constantly causing disturbances at the instigation of
CHRESTUS, he expelled them from the city...” Life of the Emperor
Nero, chapter 16: "[After the Great Fire]...punishments were also
inflicted on the CHRISTIANS, a sect professing a new and mischievous
religious belief . . . "
c) Flavius Josephus (c. 37-100 CE): Antiquities of the Jews 18.33,
"Now, there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call
him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works-a teacher of such men
as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the
Jews, and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ; and when Pilate, at
the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to
the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him, for he
appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had
foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him;
and the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this
day."
3. To reconstruct the life of Jesus of Nazareth, attention must be given to the
gospel traditions. The gospels portray Jesus in various ways: a prophet who
proclaimed the coming of God’s kingly rule, a teacher (parables/aphorisms), a
healer, an interpreter of law. It is also a source used to reconstruct the life of
Christ. The message, actions, and miracles of Jesus are all focused on the socially
and religiously marginalized. According to his teachings, God’s kingly rule
belongs to them (Chapter 5 - sermon on the mount - contains the essence of his
teachings).
D. After years of persecution, the Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan (313)
putting an end to attacks on Christianity. It read, "Our purpose is to grant both to the
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Christians and to all others full authority to follow whatever worship each man has
desired . . . . Therefore we thought it salutary and most proper to establish our purpose
that no man whatever should be refused complete toleration, who has given up his mind
to the cult of the Christians, or to the religion he personally feels best suited for himself . .
. .". The result of Constantine's policy and his conversion set the pace for future
emperors. These emperors would embrace Christianity as their personal religion.
1. It would be Theodosius I (378-395 CE) who eventually banned paganism
(391-2 CE) and made Christianity the state religion.
2. Christianity absorbed many elements from the Romans including their
language, law, administrative hierarchy, and much of their culture.
a) Eventually, it became part of the state and acquired the
characteristics of the state.
b) Christianity would fill the void left by the political disintegration of
the Western Roman Empire.
c) It provided unity in a disordered world.
E. Saint Jerome (340-420 CE) was the most celebrated biblical scholar of the time.
1. His supreme achievement was the translation of the bible from Hebrew and
Greek to Latin (383 CE).
2. This produced the Vulgate Bible.
F. Saint Augustine (354-430 CE) was the foremost defender of the Church against
pagan and heretical doctrines. His major written accomplishment was an apology called
The City of God (413-26 CE)
1. He used Christianity to reshape the insights of Plato.
2. He declared that the natural world was a dim reflection of its divine source.
3. In other words, the material world was less important than the spiritual
world.
V.
The End of the Roman Empire?
A. In 284, the army put Diocletian (r. 285-305) on the throne and thus Rome
entered a period of recovery. Diocletian introduced the Tetrarchy as a way of
managing the empire.
1. The Tretrarchy was composed of two co-emperors dividing the
empire into West/East and two assistants called Caesars groomed to
become emperors. A peaceful transfer of power was sought with the
Tetrarchy.
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2. Constatine I (r. 306-337), however, reintroduced rule by one. He also
had Constantinople, the capital of the eastern part of the Roman Empire,
built on a Greek colony (Byzamtium).
B. In the late 4th century a new force was on the move from Central Asia that
would have devastating effects on Rome. Under the leadership of Attila, the
Huns eventually reached Europe.
1. Their presence put pressure on Germanic people such as the
Visigoths, Vandals, and Franks. These Germanic people in turn
infiltrated the boundaries of Rome and established settlements in Roman
territories.
2. In 410 CE, Aleric, a Visigoth, sacked Rome.
3. Finally, in 476 CE Odoacer, a Germanic general serving Rome
deposed the last Roman Emperor Romulus Augustulus. The Western part
of the Roman Empire had come to an end. Or did it?
C. Gelasius's letter to the Eastern Emperor (494) would be a precursor to a new
struggle that would take place in the West: "Two there are, august emperor, by
which this world is chiefly ruled, the sacred authority of the priesthood and the
royal power. Of these the responsibility of the priest is more in so far as they will
answer for the kings of men themselves at the divine judgment."