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1 ANNO DOMINI "Augustus won over the soldiers with gifts, the populace with cheap corn, and all men with the sweets of repose, and so grew greater by degrees, while he concentrated in himself the functions of the Senate, the magistrates and the laws" Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55-120) I. Introduction In today's discussion we will examine the rise of the Roman Republic. Our goal is to trace how the city-state of Rome was able to expand and impose its authority over the Mediterranean world. We will also trace how this republic moved towards rule by one. Finally, we will trace the rise of Christianity within the confines of the Roman Empire. Keep in mind that once the western part of the Roman Empire collapsed Christianity would fill the political void left behind. This will open a new period in the West that many historians refer to as the Europe of the Popes. By the time we finish this discussion you should be able to do the following: 1. Explain the impact the Punic Wars had on Rome's socioeconomic and political future. 2. Analyze the factors that moved Rome from a Republic to rule by one. 3. Explain the rise of Christianity and its impact on Rome and the West. II. Rome: The Beginnings A. Before the formation of Rome, Italy had been settled by a variety of people: the Etruscans (c. 700 BCE), the Phoenicians, and the Greeks. 1. The Etruscans are believed by many to have originated from east or central Europe. a) They settled in the northern foothills of Italy and founded a series of citystates. There was a cultural exchange between the Etruscans, Greeks, and the Italic people. 2. Phoenician contact with this region of the Mediterranean is believed to have begun as early as the 11th century BCE. a) The archeological record suggests that Phoenician merchants from Tyre and Biblos had worked their way as far west as Iberia. b) Phoenicians from Tyre founded Carthage in North Africa in the 9th century BCE. This colony would be engaged in an epic struggle with Rome over control of the Mediterranean. 3. The Greeks also established colonies in Italy. Like the Phoenicians, they also eventually traveled as far west as Iberia. B. The history of Rome's foundation is difficult to unravel. This is due in large part to its intermixing with legend. Legend has it that Romulus founded the city of Rome between 754 and 748 BCE. 2 1. Titius Livy's (c. 59 BCE-17 CE) Roman History provides details of this legend. 2. With time, Rome came under the control of an Etruscan dynasty. In 510 BCE, the last of the Etruscan rulers, Lucius Tarquinius "Supurbus" (c. 534-510 BCE), was expelled from Rome brining an end to Etruscan rule (509 BCE) over this city. a) Of Tarquinius, Livy wrote, ". . . he had nothing whatever by which to make good his claim to the crown except actual violence . . . he had no hope of winning the affections the citizens, he had to maintain his dominion by fear." b) Rome's experience under Etruscan rule helps explain its dislike for rule by one. 3. Once the Etruscan monarchy was removed, Rome moved towards a Republican form of government. a) Social tensions between Patricians and the Plebeians dominated the early history of Rome. The Patricians (patres/fathers) were wealthy landowners who dominated the affairs of state, provided leadership in war, and interpreted law. The Plebeians were the common people of Rome who did not share in patrician privileges. b) Over time, representation was granted to the plebeians in the form of Concilium Plebis (471 BCE ) = assembly. In 451 Romans/magistrates (College of Decemvirs), wrote a "constitution" referred to as the Twelve Tables. The Twelve Tables dealt with property rights, legal status, and marriage issues. This meant law would no longer be arbitrary. Livy stated that making laws meant ". . . liberty will be equal for all, from the highest to the lowest. . . " c) The Lex Canuleia (445 BCE) allowed for intermarriage. Tribunes were created to protect and represent plebeian interests in Senate. d) The Senatus Populusque Romanus (Roman Senate and People) was the most important institution. It originated from a council of noble elders. III. Expansion under the Republic (3rd century BCE) A. Having attained political stability, Rome next embarked on expanding its territorial borders. The third century, plagued by the Punic Wars (waged against Carthage), witnessed the creation of the Roman Empire as a consequence of this war. Also during this period Rome experienced a socioeconomic and political crisis caused by its expansion. Slowly, this led to the rule by one. 1. Polybius's (b. 202 BCE) Histories is one of the sources used by historians to reconstruct the history of the Punic Wars. a) Polybius believed that Rome's greatness lay in its institutions and military. He writes extensively on them in his work. 3 Government of Rome (264 BCE) ROMAN CITIZENS | _______________________________________________________ | | Centuriate Assembly | _____________________________________________ | | | | | | 2 Censors 2 Consuls Praetors 2 Aediles Questors Priests | SENATE Tribal Assembly | ____________________ | | 2 Aidiles 10 Tribunes CENTURIATE ASSEMBLY: laws, treaties, declaration of war Censors: contracts for temple/road maintenance, list of citizens for taxes/military and led religious ceremony Consuls: generals, direction of government Praetors: judicial and governors Adiles: supervise public markets and roads Questors: financial officials Priests: determination of will of gods and calendar TRIBAL ASSEMBLY: Plebiscites Adiles: supervised road and food supply in Rome Tribunes: protect plebiscites SENATE: advisory body composed of ex-magistrates 2. The Punic Wars (264-241, 218-201, 149-146 BCE) between Rome and Carthage appears to have originated over economic interests. Carthage had initially focused its expansionist efforts in the eastern part of North Africa. In 264 BCE, however, Carthage laid siege to Messina (Sicily) causing the First Punic War. The war lasted for twenty-three years until 241 BCE when a peace was secured. a) As a result of this first war, Sicily became a Roman province, Rome became a maritime power, and Carthage was forced to focus its efforts in Iberia. Under the leadership of Hamilcar Barca, the Carthaginians established a new center of power in Iberia called Carthago Nova (Cartagena). 3. War between Carthage and Rome resumed in 218 BCE, when Hannibal Barca laid siege to the city-state of Saguntum, an ally of Rome. Hannibal’s actions broke Carthage’s treaty with Rome. a) Polybius details these events in his Histories,and the choices left to Rome: "The truth is that when the Romans heard of the disaster at Saguntum, they at once elected envoys, whom they dispatched in all haste to Carthage with the offer of two alternatives. One appeared to the Carthaginians to involve disgrace as well as injury if they accepted it, while the other was the beginning of a great struggle and of great 4 dangers. For one of these alternatives was the surrender of Hannibal and his staff to Rome, and the other was war." b) This war raged in Iberia, Italy, and Africa. Hannibal’s early success in this war ended when P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (c. 236-183 BCE) defeated him at Battle of Zama (202 BCE). c) Polybius explained that this point, ". . . The Roman State was able to extend its domination over nearly all the inhabited world, and that in under fifty-three years." B. From 133 to 30 BCE Rome experienced a revolutionary period as Republican institutions sought to deal with the impact of conquests and expansion. 1. Patricians and wealthy plebeians accessed conquered lands through leasing. This led to the creation of latifundias (large estates). a) Both the move toward latifundia and competition from farmers from abroad contributed to the decline of the small farmer in Rome. b) Lengthy military service also created financial woes for farmers. c) Many displaced farmers migrated to Rome creating social and political tensions. 2. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (163-133 BCE) was the first to attempt to address Rome's grave economic and social ills by promoting agrarian reforms (legislation). Tiberius wanted to transfer public land to displaced farmers. His resolutions produced what is known as the Gracchan Crisis (133-121 BCE). a) He introduced a bill that limited the individual possession of the ager publicus, reduce the Senate's monopoly of the ager publicus, and redistributed reclaimed lands among the poor. b) Tiberius sought reelection as tribune thus breaking with Roman political tradition. c) Plutarch's Tiberius Gracchus and Gauis Gracchus explains. "Thus armed, they made towards Tiberius, knocking down those whom they found in front of him . . . . Tiberius tried to save himself by flight. As he was running, he was stopped by one who caught hold of his gown . . . . And stumbling over those who before had been knocked down, as he was endeavoring to get up again, Publius Satureius, a tribune, one of his colleagues, was observed to give the first fatal stroke . . . . This, we are told, was the first sedition amongst the Romans, since the abrogation of kingly government, that ended in the effusion of blood." C. According to Appian, during the last century of the Roman Republic "Violence ruled everything." This was also a time when personal advancement was made possible by the army. Political power depended on support of the military. 5 1. The military reforms introduced by Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE) in 107 BCE set Rome on the course described by Appian. a) Marius eliminated property qualification for military service making it possible for the urban poor to serve. Soldiers now also served long enlistments that kept them employed. Those who served were paid, shared in the captured goods, and were granted land after 16 years of service b) Thus the Roman military was transformed from a militia to a professional fighting force. This also meant that the attachment of soldiers was to their commanders and not the state/senate. 2. Julius Caesar's (101-44 BCE) rise to power exemplifies just how loyal armies were to their leaders. Available to historians wishing to explore the rise of Caesar his works the Gallic War and the Civil War. a) The conquest of Gaul (58-51 BCE) served as Caesar's springboard to success. From these campaigns, Caesar attained wealth, military fame, and most important, a devoted army. b) Caesar, along with Pompey and Crassus, created the First Triumvirate (60-53 BCE). It essentially took control of Rome away from the Senate. However, the eventual collapse of the First Triumvirate would create conflict between Caesar and Pompey. c) In 49 BCE, the Senate refused Caesar a consulship and asked him to disband his army. Caesar, instead turned to his army and and gave the following speach, "I have been your commander for nine years; under my leadership, your efforts on Rome s behalf have been crowned with good fortune; you have won countless battles and have pacified the whole of Gaul and Germany. Now, I ask you to defend my reputation against the assaults of my enemies .” Will his military in tact, Caesar responded to the demands of the Senate by crossing the Rubicon River and marching on Rome. Rome was now plunged into a civil war. d) At the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BCE) Caesar finally defeated Pompey, and with him the Senate. In 46 BCE Caesar received the title Dictator for life. This confirmed the fear of many that Caesar sought to be king. This prompted a group of senators to conspire and assassinate Caesar in 44 BCE (the Ides of March). Brutus (leader of conspiracy), in a letter to Cicero, explained that "I was neither properly a full citizen while Caesar was alive, except when I had resolved upon doing that deed . . . ." D. The assassination of Caesar once again plunged Rome into a civil war. A Second Triumvirate was formed between Marc Antony, Marcus Lepidus and Gaius Octavius (Caesar's great nephew) against the Senate. It assumed control of Rome and defeated the forces of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in 42 BCE. Like the First Triumvirate, the second would also be dissolved because of a power struggle. 6 1. At the Battle of Actium (31 BCE) Octavius defeated Marc Antony brining an end to his opposition. 2. Unopposed, Octavian (r. 27 BCE-14 CE) now moved towards forming the Principate. He was granted the titles of Augustus (Revered), Imperator (commander of the army), and Princeps (first among equals). 3. The Roman historian Tacitus summarized the consequence of Rome's move toward a Principate in the following passage, "At home all was tranquil, and there were magistrates with the same titles, there was a younger generation, sprung up since the victory of Actium, and even many of the older men had been born during the civil wars. How few were left who had seen the republic! Thus the State had been revolutionized and there was not a vestige left of the old morality. Stript of equality, all looked up to the commands of a sovereign with the least of apprehension . . . ." IV. The Age of Emperors (31 BCE-476 CE) and the Rise of Christianity A. With the collapse of the Republic, the Roman Empire came to be ruled by emperors. This period witnessed the rise of "dynasties" such as the Julio-Claudians and the Antonines. The Roman Empire in the age of emperors grew even larger than that under the Republic. This period, however, would also witness the decline of Rome as an economic crisis, a political crisis, and invasions by the "Goths" undermined the Empire. Christianity also flourished and became Rome's state religion during this period. There is a wealth of sources available for the study of this phase of Rome's history. 7 1. Cornelius Tacitus (c. 55 -117 CE), recognized by many as Rome's greatest historian, produced works such as Germania (describes the geography, customs, and tribes of the Germans), Historiae (covered 69-96 CE: only four books survive covering 69-10 CE), and Annales (concerned with political life and loss of liberty under the Julio-Cludians). 2. Gauis Suetonius Tranquillus (c. 70-140 CE) wrote biographies. His most important work was The Twelve Caesars. It covered great lives of and the lives of emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian (d. 96 CE). 3. Ammianus Marcellinus's (330-395 CE) Histories was comprised of thirtyone books of which only eighteen survive. They cover Roman history from 353378 CE. His work provides a political and diplomatic history of Rome. B. Beginning about 258 CE, Rome's frontiers in the West witnessed the migration of the "Goths". Territories under Roman control were devastated by these migrations. This lead to the Third Century Crisis. Jordanes described the Goths as a "swarm of bees" in his History of the Goths (6th century CE). In the east, the Sassanids began to pressure Rome as well. 1. In addition to foreign wars, civil war was added to the chaos of the 3rd century. Prior to this period, Rome had maintained stability through the leadership of individuals or dynasties. This changed after the Severan Dynasty (193-235 CE). a) This chaos was brought about by the military. The military replaced emperors at will. Holding their supreme leader responsible for their woes, the soldiers frequently intervened and thus deprived the Roman Empire of a dynasty. b) Between 235-284 CE, Rome had twenty Emperors! 2. The political instability and the pressure from the Goths created an economic crisis. a) The sacking of towns, and the destruction of crops and herds were primary caused of this crisis. Gold disappeared as it was hoarded by the wealthy. 3. These economic difficulties resulted in a social crisis as the poor were further impoverished. Could Rome be ready for religious change? C. The New Testament contains the Christian scriptures. It is composed of the following: a) Gospels (Good News) = it tells of the beginnings of Christianity through the life of Jesus of Nazareth. b) Acts = it tells of spread of Christianity through the apostles. c) Epistles = they are composed of letter written by Christian leaders that detail the beliefs, practices, and ethics of Christianity. d) Revelation = it deals with the culmination of Christianity. 2. There is mention of Jesus of Nazareth (b. 4 BCE-6 CE) outside of the New Testament. These source include the following: 8 a) Tacitus (b. 55 CE): Annals 15.44/47, " ...neither human resources, nor imperial generosity, nor appeasement of the gods, eliminated the sinister suspicion that the fire had been deliberately started. To stop the rumor, NERO, made scapegoats--and punished with every refinement the notoriously depraved CHRISTIANS (as they were popularly called). Their originator, CHRIST, had been executed in Tiberius' reign by the Procurator of Judaea, PONTIUS PILATUS (governor from 26 to 36 A.D.). But in spite of this temporary setback, the deadly superstition had broken out again, not just in Judaea (where the mischief had started) but even in Rome. All degraded and shameful practices collect and flourish in the capital. First, NERO had the self-admitted Christians arrested. Then, on their information, large numbers of others were condemned-not so much for starting fires as because of their hatred for the human race. Their deaths were made amusing. Dressed in wild animals skins, they were torn to pieces by dogs, or crucified, or made into torches to be set on fire after dark as illumination.... Despite their guilt as Christians, and the ruthless punishment it deserved, the victims were pitied. For it was felt that they were being sacrificed to one man's brutality rather than to the national interest." b) Suetonius (c. 70-122), Life of the Emperor Claudius, chapter 25: "Since the Jews were constantly causing disturbances at the instigation of CHRESTUS, he expelled them from the city...” Life of the Emperor Nero, chapter 16: "[After the Great Fire]...punishments were also inflicted on the CHRISTIANS, a sect professing a new and mischievous religious belief . . . " c) Flavius Josephus (c. 37-100 CE): Antiquities of the Jews 18.33, "Now, there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works-a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews, and many of the Gentiles. He was [the] Christ; and when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him, for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him; and the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day." 3. To reconstruct the life of Jesus of Nazareth, attention must be given to the gospel traditions. The gospels portray Jesus in various ways: a prophet who proclaimed the coming of God’s kingly rule, a teacher (parables/aphorisms), a healer, an interpreter of law. It is also a source used to reconstruct the life of Christ. The message, actions, and miracles of Jesus are all focused on the socially and religiously marginalized. According to his teachings, God’s kingly rule belongs to them (Chapter 5 - sermon on the mount - contains the essence of his teachings). D. After years of persecution, the Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan (313) putting an end to attacks on Christianity. It read, "Our purpose is to grant both to the 9 Christians and to all others full authority to follow whatever worship each man has desired . . . . Therefore we thought it salutary and most proper to establish our purpose that no man whatever should be refused complete toleration, who has given up his mind to the cult of the Christians, or to the religion he personally feels best suited for himself . . . .". The result of Constantine's policy and his conversion set the pace for future emperors. These emperors would embrace Christianity as their personal religion. 1. It would be Theodosius I (378-395 CE) who eventually banned paganism (391-2 CE) and made Christianity the state religion. 2. Christianity absorbed many elements from the Romans including their language, law, administrative hierarchy, and much of their culture. a) Eventually, it became part of the state and acquired the characteristics of the state. b) Christianity would fill the void left by the political disintegration of the Western Roman Empire. c) It provided unity in a disordered world. E. Saint Jerome (340-420 CE) was the most celebrated biblical scholar of the time. 1. His supreme achievement was the translation of the bible from Hebrew and Greek to Latin (383 CE). 2. This produced the Vulgate Bible. F. Saint Augustine (354-430 CE) was the foremost defender of the Church against pagan and heretical doctrines. His major written accomplishment was an apology called The City of God (413-26 CE) 1. He used Christianity to reshape the insights of Plato. 2. He declared that the natural world was a dim reflection of its divine source. 3. In other words, the material world was less important than the spiritual world. V. The End of the Roman Empire? A. In 284, the army put Diocletian (r. 285-305) on the throne and thus Rome entered a period of recovery. Diocletian introduced the Tetrarchy as a way of managing the empire. 1. The Tretrarchy was composed of two co-emperors dividing the empire into West/East and two assistants called Caesars groomed to become emperors. A peaceful transfer of power was sought with the Tetrarchy. 10 2. Constatine I (r. 306-337), however, reintroduced rule by one. He also had Constantinople, the capital of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, built on a Greek colony (Byzamtium). B. In the late 4th century a new force was on the move from Central Asia that would have devastating effects on Rome. Under the leadership of Attila, the Huns eventually reached Europe. 1. Their presence put pressure on Germanic people such as the Visigoths, Vandals, and Franks. These Germanic people in turn infiltrated the boundaries of Rome and established settlements in Roman territories. 2. In 410 CE, Aleric, a Visigoth, sacked Rome. 3. Finally, in 476 CE Odoacer, a Germanic general serving Rome deposed the last Roman Emperor Romulus Augustulus. The Western part of the Roman Empire had come to an end. Or did it? C. Gelasius's letter to the Eastern Emperor (494) would be a precursor to a new struggle that would take place in the West: "Two there are, august emperor, by which this world is chiefly ruled, the sacred authority of the priesthood and the royal power. Of these the responsibility of the priest is more in so far as they will answer for the kings of men themselves at the divine judgment."