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Transcript
Bernstein: Ch. 6 “Learning” Pg. 194 Adaptation= to adjust to new environments and experiences by integrating new knowledge “Learning is an adaptive process through which experience modifies pre-existing behavior and understanding” Psych Research about learning has 3 main questions: 1. Which events and relationships do people learn about? 2. What circumstances determine whether and how people learn? 3. Is learning a slow process requiring lots of practice, or does it involve sudden flashes of insight? Non-Associative Learning: Habituation and Sensitization We are naturally in-tune to stimuli- loud noises, special tastes, pain… Novel Stimuli- things we have not experienced before, attract our attention Habituation= is a form of adaptation, a form of learning, that “Our attention to unchanging stimuli decreases over time… After our response o a stimulus has habituated, it may quickly return if he stimulus changes Dis-habituation- the reappearance of your original response to when a stimulus changes Sensitization- simple form of learning, is an increase in responsiveness to stimuli… example exaggerated responses to unexpected, potentially threatening sights or sounds, especially dureing periods of emotional arousal… Sensitization and habituation help us adapt to our environment. Pg. 196 Richard Solomon (study, opponent process theory)tries to explain how habituation occurs “new stimulus events- especially those that arouse strong positive or negative emotions- disrupts psychological homeostasis. This disruption creates an opposite process that counteracts the disruption and eventually restores equilibrium. … eventually if the stimuli occurs often enough the opponent process occurs more rapidly. Eventually it will suppress the initial response…” See page 196 overdose explanation Associative Learning Pg. 197 Classical Conditioning: Learning Signals and Associations Ivan Pavlov, Russian physiologist, Nobel Prize 1904 for research on digestive processes. He found salivation occurred when no food was present. He wanted to find out if salivation occurred without an obvious physical cause. He paired a natural stimulus with a neutral stimulus and gradually the neutral 1 stimulus by itself created the same response. The dog learned the that the neutral stimulus (a tone or something else) signaled the food. Conditioned Responses over Time: Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery: Extinction: If the conditioned stimulus continues to occur without being followed at least occasionally by the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will gradually disappear. Reconditioning occurs when the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus are paired again, then the conditioned stimulus will return with the same strength. Spontaneous Recovery occurs when after extinction, the conditioned stimuli causes the response again but without further CS-UCS pairing. Sounds (music), smells or other stimuli, when associated with strong emotional connections at an earlier time, can illicit reflexes/arousal years later after the UCS disappears. Pg. 199 Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus Generalization occurs after a conditioned response is learned when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus also elicit the response. The greater similarity between a new stimulus and the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the conditioned response. Stimulus discrimination is the concept where people and animals learn to discriminate between stimuli. Pg. 200 The Signaling of Significant Events What determines whether and how a conditioned response is learned? Timing: classical conditioning works best when the conditioned stimulus preceded the unconditioned stimulus. (tight time sequence is best) Predictability: classical conditioning proceeds most rapidly when the conditioned stimulus always signals the unconditioned stimulus and only the unconditioned stimulus. Signal Strength: a conditioned response will be greater if the unconditioned stimulus is strong than if weak… also strength adds to how quickly the conditioned response is learned. (more intense stimuli gets noticed) Attention: the stimulus you are paying attention to at the time of conditioning will be the stimulus associated with the conditioned stimulus. Biopreparedness: humans and animals may be biologically predisposed (prepared) to develop certain conditioned associations. (Conditioned Taste Aversion) 2 Pg. 202 Second-Order Conditioning After a conditioned stimulus is learned it can act as a unconditioned stimulus and a new association can trigger the response. Applications of Classical Conditioning: Phobias: are extreme fears of objects or situations that are less dangerous than the reaction suggests. Can be treated by systematic desensitization: creates a new response to a stimuli that had been associated with fear, so they associate relaxation with a feared stimulus. Taste Aversion Conditioning: To prevent predatory animals from eating other stock animals, associations are created with stock animals paired with nauseous substances. The predators eat the “processed” animals and get sick thus being conditioned to associate nausea with the stock animal. Operant Conditioning: Learning the Consequences of Behavior People learn associations between their actions and the stimuli that follow; between behavior and its consequence. 1. Edward Thorndike (1905)- psychologist researcher, animal intelligence and problem solving… Law of Effect: Thorndike found; “If a response made in the presence of a particular stimulus is followed by satisfaction (reward) then that response is more likely to be made the next time the stimulus is encountered.” (Reinforcement: increases probability that an operant behavior will occur again.) Responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again. BF Skinner (1938) said organisms learn to operate on the environment. How is behavior changed by its consequences? Skinner Box used to study and isolate behavior and consequences. Instrumental Conditioning: Experimenter defines each opportunity for organism to produce a response Conditioning is measured by how long it takes for the responses to appear. Operant Conditioning Organism can make a response anytime Conditioning is measured by rate of responding Basic Components of Operant Conditioning: Stimulus Generalization, Stimulus Discrimination, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery (are also present in Operant conditioning) 3 Organism learns responses by operating on the environment. Skinner wanted to analyze how behavior is changed by its consequences Operant = is a response that has some effect on the world A response that operates on the environment A response that provokes a consequence Skinner Box: research tool used to measure learning based on how often an animal responds Operant Conditioning depends on the concept of reinforcement: Positive Reinforcement: Behavior is strengthened when something pleasant or desirable occurs. Behavior then reinforcement Negative Reinforcement: Behavior is strengthened Behavior results in termination of something unpleasant. (so you behave well to remove discomfort) Pg. 207 2. Escape and Avoidance Conditioning: Escape/avoidance is the effect of negative reinforcement. Escape Conditioning: A person or animal learns responses that stop aversive stimulus. We learn to avoid pain take pain pills We learn to avoid crying child buy them a toy… Avoidance Conditioning: A person/animal responds to a signal to avoid an aversive stimulus that has not yet arrived Fear reduction is a big issue Can also be a mix of classical + operant conditioning. Adds the cognitive argument “In order for people to learn to avoid an unpleasant event (example make one up) they must have established an expectancy or other mental representation.” (This is a mental process) 3 Pg. 209 Discriminative Stimuli and Stimulus Control Discriminative Stimuli: Stimuli that signals whether a reinforcer is available if a certain response is made. (Environmental Stimuli) Stimulus Control also known as Stimulus Discrimination: When an organism learns to make a particular response in the presence of one stimulus but not another Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior 4. Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations Responses that come successively close to the desired response 4 (building behavior until desired results occur) 5 Pg. 211 Primary and Secondary Reinforcement: Primary reinforcers are things that are innately rewarding- food, water 6. Secondary Reinforcers: (Also called conditioned reinforcer) Previously neutral stimulus that when paired with a stimulus that is already reinforcing + will take on reinforcing qualities… Secondary reinforcers are important to build and maintain behavior even when primary reinforcer is absent. Money is secondary reinforcer: Reinforcing power lies in its association with the many rewards it buys. Social Approval is another secondary reinforcer 7. Delay and Size of Reinforcement: Timing of reinforcement impacts strength of behavior. The effect of the reinforcement is strengthened when it comes soon after a response occurs. Delayed punishment or reinforcement has less impact on reducing behavior Size/strength of reinforcement direct relationship with behavior- stronger reinforcement stronger behavior to get that reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement- reinforcement that always occurs 8. Partial or Intermittent Reinforcement- reinforcement occurs intermittently Schedules answer the questions when and how are reinforcement given? 1. Fixed Ratio- Reinforcer following a fixed number of responses… every 10th time=food * 2. Variable Ratio- 9 reinforcement comes after a varying # of responses Provide a reinforcement after a given # of responses The number can vary Predictions are difficult to make about which response would result in reinforcement A factor is identified as the Average # of responses Relates to gambling 3. Fixed-interval- 10 Reinforcer provided for the first response that occurs after some fixed time has passed since last reward No matter how many responses have been made during interval 4. Variable-interval- 11 5 Reinforce 1st response after some period of time. Amount of time varies Unpredictable Different schedules of reinforcement produce different patterns of responding. Fixed Ratio and Variable Ratio schedules- produce high rates of behavior overall. Because, the frequency of the reward depends directly on the rate of responding. Pg. 213 Schedules and Extinction- 12 If an operant response is no longer followed by reinforcer then response may eventually extinguish Spontaneous recovery is still possible Behaviors learned under partial reinforcement schedule are more difficult to extinguish vs. continuous reinforcement Superstitious Behavior is partial reinforcement= accidental reinforcement strengthens actions that precede a response and appear to cause the reinforcement 13. Why Reinforcers Work: Brain and Bio-psychology Electrodes stimulate pleasure centers in certain parts of the hypothalamus Dopamine = drugs activate pleasure centers All this relates to reinforcement, example rats will continuously press a bar when electrodes are stimulating part of the hypothalamus. 14. Pg. 215 Punishment Weakens behavior Reduces the frequency of an operant behavior- by presenting an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant one. Responsesstimulus(weakens behavior) Drawbacks to Punishment: 1. It does not erase an undesirable habit only suppresses it 2. Punishment can produce unwanted side effects can create fear of punisher 3. Punishment is ineffective unless it is given immediately after response and each time the response is made, especially with children 4. Punishment can become aggression 5. Punishment can lead to imitated behaviorAggressive behavior in children Pg. 217 Effective Use of Punishment 1. Person giving punishment should explain why + connect to changing behavior (can help eliminate fear) 2. Punishment should be immediate (problem potential attention reinforcing) 3. Inform offender how to behave +reinforce appropriate behavior 6 15. Pg. 220 Cognitive Processes in Learning: Traditional behaviorists believed that “stimuli, responses, and consequences build and alter overt behavior… learning results from the automatic, unthinking, formation or modification of associations between observable events.” All behavior is observable, everything is observable to behaviorists. Traditional behaviorists pay almost little or no attention to the role unconscious mental activity associated with learning. Cognitive Approach to learning: Cognitive psychologists accept Classical and Operant conditioning but say there are mental processes going on that- help us understand causality… conditioning adds to how we represent, store, and use information. They cite the concept of expectancy as evidence of mental processes… example an expected or unexpected stimulus impacts the response- this is a mental process. Basically we think about our expectations… Also we ascribe meaning o experiences and this is a cognitive process… example we have expectations about the stimuli. We also make judgments about meaning and that relates to how reinforcement might be more rewarding… Pg. 221 Learned Helplessness M.Riley Pg. 223 Latent Learning (Tolman study rats and a maze)= learning that is not evident when it first occurs. 16. P224 Cognitive Maps (Tolman study rats)= mental representation of how the maze was arranged, developed naturally, without reinforcement based on experience. Pg. 224 Insight and Learning (Kohler study chimpanzees) problem solving, insight= sudden understanding of the problem as a whole… different theories “mental trial and error, process in which people envision a course of action, mentally stimulate its results, compare it with the imagined outcome of other alternatives, and settle on the course of action most likely to aid complex problem solving and decision making.” 7