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Transcript
Module 74 “Attributions Attitudes and Actions” Connections to other areas Motivation Emotion Cognition Perception/perspectives Personality/traits Social Psych Focus on the situation “Study the social influences that explain why a person acts differently in different situations.” Fundamental Attribution Error Social behavior is connected to social cognition We attribute behavior 1. Traits = Dispositional Attribution or 2. Situational Attribution Fundamental Attribution Error: “We make mistakes – to overestimate the impact of the situation or the personality traits in explaining behavior.” Self-Serving Bias We have a tendency to attribute our own bad behavior to situational factors We also have a tendency to attribute bad behavior of others to dispositional factors (example of poverty) Attitudes and Actions What we think affects what we do. Attitudes are feelings influenced by beliefs (cognition) “Attitudes affects our actions.” Persuasion tries to influence behavior 2 Forms of PersuasionPeripheral Route Implicit, not systematic or formal Example anecdotal or celebrity endorsements/opinion Central Route Persuasion Evidence + arguments Trigger favorable thoughts Thoughtful formal and empirical Social Pressure Other people Can weaken or strengthen attitudes Or change actions. When external influences are minimal attitudes are dominant Behavior also influences attitudes Foot in the Door People who agree to a small request comply easier with a larger request. Hence people will increasingly adjust their attitudes to their actions Get people to agree to something small then to a bigger request People have been shown to act against their attitudes. “After speaking or writing or writing on behalf of a position they have qualms about… they begin to believe their own words.” Power of Roles: Role is a set of expectations about a social position defining how people ought to behave People- strive to follow social prescriptions Zimbardo Prison Study: Exhibits the power of the situation and roles The situation impacts the individual character Personality traits are a factor of what degree we are affected by the situation. However, the situation is more powerful in affecting behavior in many situations. Cognitive Dissonance (Leon Festinger- Cognitive psych) Occurs when “we become aware that our attitudes and actions don’t coincide.” This creates tension = cognitive dissonance- to relieve the tension we change our attitudes to fall in line with our behavior. Cognitive Connection Attitudes Follow Behavior (Example) Moral actions build moral attitudes We cannot always directly control our attitudes, (example- negative thoughts) but we can influence them by altering our behavior. We can talk in more positive/self-accepting ways We can create a more loving/giving behavior = more loving giving attitudes “What we do we become” “Changing behavior can change how we think.” Module 75 Conformity and Obedience Power of Social Influence Conformity Obedience to Authority Group Behavior Conformity: Complying with social pressure Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard (less conformity in individualist cultures) Automatic Mimicry: Humans tend to go with their group Think similar To behave Mood Contagion: We have a tendency to take on the emotional tones of those around us. Mirror Neurons/”Chameleon Effect” Asch Study Pg. 763 Qualities of Conformity: People are more likely to conform when they: Are made to feel incompetent or insecure Are in a group of at least 3 people Are in a group in which everyone agrees (1 dissenter = less conformity) Are from a culture that encourages social respect (collectivist) Why do we conform? 1. To avoid rejection We fit our behavior to Norms (rules for acceptable/expected behaviors) “Normative social Influence” Sensitive to social norms Informational Social Influence Willingness to accept others’ opinions of reality Pg. 765 Obedience: Following Orders Milgram Study Milgram’s found obedience was highest when: Authority figure was closer in proximity Legitimate authority Authority figure had high status The victim was dis-associated= farther away from participant High obedience when no contrary role models were visible “These experiences demonstrate that the strong social influences can make people conform to falsehoods of capitulate to cruelty.” “Normal reaction to an abnormal situation is abnormal behavior.” James Waller Milgram exploited the foot in the door effect… started small Module 76 Group Behavior Pg. 771 How is our behavior affected by the presence of others? Social Facilitation Improved performance on simple or well learned tasks in the presence of others. -only on simple tasks not usually on complex tasks. “Presence of others sometimes helps, sometimes hinders.” Why? Observation –Arousal Arousal effects performance Arousal strengthens our most likely response. Crowding triggers arousal Friendly people seem more friendly Social Loafing Group work We exert 1/3 less effort when working in groups Causes of Social Loafing: 1. Less accountability 2. Tendency to think individual contributions are dispensable 3. Free ride on others effort Deindividuation Uninhibited behavior Process of losing self-awareness/Self-restraint People are 1. Aroused and 2. Anonymous Depersonalized Example- Face Paint/masks are more likely to kill or torture Deindividuation we become more responsive to the group Group Polarization: Increasing a group’s cohesion/connectivity + exclusivity of a group A group’s characteristics become more specific to the group “The beliefs and attitudes we bring to a group grow stronger as we discuss them with like-minded others.” Example: Religion + Politics, prejudice Terrorism- grows slowly interest and isolation=more extreme views Group Think “Harmonious but unrealistic group thinking.” Over confidence Conformity Self-justification Group Polarization To Prevent Group Think: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Leader welcomes various opinions Invites expert criticism of developing plans Assigns people to identify possible problems “open debate often shapes good decisions” Diverse groups help The Power of Individuals People can influence the majority Social control = the power of the situation Personal control these two items can interact Groups where 1-2 individuals consistently express controversial attitudes or an unusual judgement can sway the majority opinion. One thing comes out: Self-confidence can stimulate others 1. They consider other views: people privately develop sympathy for minority position + rethink their views Cultural Influences of Behavior Culture defined: Behaviors Ideas Attitudes Values Traditions shared by a group Transmitted from generation to generation Author argues we have a capacity for culture Variation Across Culture Variations in belief, values, raising children etc. Each culture has its Norms=rules of acceptable behavior Teaching Idea: Identify examples of group behavior in your own life. Compare with a classmate. Module 77 Prejudice and Discrimination Pg. 780 How we relate to one another: Prejudice Aggression Attraction Altruism Peace making Prejudice- “Prejudging” Unjustifiable Usually negative attitude toward: A group, a culture, gender or ethnic group Consists of: Beliefs, emotions, predisposed to action to discriminate Example- ethnocentrism-superiority of ones ethnic group Prejudice is cognitive in nature To believe that a person of other ethnicity is somehow inferior or threatening. To feel dislike To be hesitant Prejudice is negative attitude Discrimination= negative behavior How does prejudice manifest? 1. In thought 2. In action Prejudice can be automatic, unconscious and subtle Gender Prejudice and sexual orientation prejudice are also very common Most people feel more positive toward women Traits are seen as positive Social Roots of Prejudice Prejudice arises because of social divisions/Social Inequalities Just World Phenomenon: A cognitive aspect The “haves” usually develop attitudes that justify things as they are. Justice Reflects the attitude good is rewarded and evil is punished People who see their own wealth justly deserved They also see poor people as justly deserving poverty Attitudes are perceived as accurate and correct Justified/rationalizing stereotypes Victims of Discrimination React Self-blame Anger Blame the victim Us and Them pg. 784 In-group and Outgroup Dividing into groups Evolutionary, aids survival= communal solidarity We define ourselves Social Identity Associations + contrasts are natural In-group= Us One tends to like people like ourselves Outgroup Sees the other as not us In-group Bias People favor their own group Are reflected easy with simple groupings Relates to “Cognitive Power of Partisanship” Fear heightens in-group unity Emotional Roots of Prejudice Negative Emotions nourish prejudice Scapegoat Theory Emotional appeal Blame someone Target for anger Results from frustration Temporary situations-frustrations intensifies prejudice Students low self-esteem – directing (frustration) at other groups To boost their sense of self Conversely those who feel loved + supported experience openness + acceptance. Cognitive Roots of Prejudice Prejudice =cognition- simplistic view of the world Forming categories We notice differences to more Example race Using selective attention “Is drawn to distinctive features of less familiar people.” Learned associations (perceptions) We also perceive Outgroup Homogeneity- “they all look alike” Cognitive FactorsOther Race Effect Cross Race Effect Own Race Bias We have greater recognition for faces of our own race (develops at 3-9 months of age) Stereotypes are perpetrated by “Vivid Cases” People remember vivid examples Hindsight Bias + Blame the Victim After the fact Making judgements The outcome biases the evaluation of the outcome (judgement) Social Systems People like things the way they are Natural conservatism Tendency to justify things the way they are because ought to be that way (System Justification) Module 78 Aggression pg. 789 Aggression is any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy Could be result of hostility Biology and Aggression Not an instinct Has a biofactor Genetic Neural Bio-chemical Neural No one location in the brain Complex behavior Inhibit or facilitate aggressive behavior Frontal Lobe-Brain area for inhibition Amygdala when stimulated causes aggression Damage = more aggression Bio-chemical Influences Electrochemical Hormones in blood stream-Testosterone Low T = less aggression High T = more aggression Less Intelligence (correlation) Less serotonin High T= Irritability Irritability Assertiveness Impulsiveness Low tolerance for frustration Predisposes aggressive response to provocation or competition Among both teenage boys and adult men, high testosterone levels correlate with delinquency, hard drug use, and aggressive-bullying responses to frustration Drug in Bloodstream increases aggression- Alcohol Aggression prone people more aggressive when drinking Aggressive response to frustration Tends to focus their attention on a “provocation cues.” Pg. 791 Psychological and Social Factors Aversive Events Frustration Aggression Hypothesis FrustrationAnger=Aggression Example baseball pitchers heat/hit batters Other stimuli hot temperatures/crowding/pain/personal insults Reinforcement and Modeling Aversive events creates aggression Learned behavior and Social Learning connection (Bobo/Bandura study) Rewards for aggressive behavior = more aggressive behavior Avoid modeling aggression Media Models for Violence (social scripts/social referencing) Desensitize people to accept and embrace aggression Video Games “Psychological processes underlying such effects are well understood and include: imitation; observational learning; priming of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral scripts; physiological arousal; and emotional desensitization.” Module 79 Attraction Pg. 798-806 3 factors to Attraction- Proximity, Attractiveness, Similarity Proximity: Geographic nearness “is friendship’s most powerful predictor” Mere Exposure Effect: Proximity breeds liking Repeated exposure to people = more liking Online Match Making: Mostly expands the pool of potential mates Physical Attractiveness First impressions are always appearance Evolutionary- healthy reproductive mate Physical ratios Role of ovulation Face is the best predictor Similarity: Opposites do not attract. “Friends and couples are far more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, and interests (and, for that matter, age, religion, race, education, intelligence, smoking behavior, and economic status).” Similarity of attitudes, ideas, likes… = contentment Reward Theory: “We will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us.” We are attracted by positive interaction and repelled by stress etc… Relationships develop out of the evaluation of costs and benefits Romantic Love Over Time: Passionate Love Key ingredient is arousal Hormones (testosterone, dopamine, adrenaline, oxytocin) are associated Two Factor Theory1. Physical Arousal 2. Cognitive Appraisal Arousal from any source can enhance the emotion depending on the cognitive interpretation. Lust = immediate desire Romantic love = desire and attachment Companionate Love Def. a deep, affectionate attachment Bonding with a mate ADVICE: 1. Equity is an important element: Both partners receive a proportion of what they give Sharing household chores Sharing- decisions, possessions, burdens, caring 2. Self-Disclosure: Revealing of intimate detail about ourselves Likes/dislikes/dreams/worries/proud/shameful moments/ Breeds liking Must be reciprocated = intimacy 3. Positive Support: Not sarcasm, scorn, resentment, hostility, anger, criticism, put downs, all are relationship killers Positive support, communication, sympathy, empathy, respect, smiles, compliments, touching, laughing The number of positive interactions must outnumber the negative interactions (Social Exchange Theory) Module 80 Altruism, Conflict, and Peace Making Pg. 807-819 Altruism: Def. an unselfish concern for the welfare of others Kitty Genovese incident/study, Darly and Latane Bystander Apathy - explains why people did not help. Attribution to situational factors. They concluded that a decision scheme—was processed by each person: 1. First to notice the incident 2. To interpret it as an emergency 3. Assume responsibility for helping (Figure 80.1). At each step, the presence of others can turn us away from the path that leads to helping. Diffusion of Responsibility: The presence of others shows people they are not responsible for helping. Everyone thinks someone else will step in. Be Happy and you Help People “Oh, make us happy and you make us good!” It doesn’t matter how we are cheered. Whether by being made to feel successful and intelligent, by thinking happy thoughts, by finding money, or even by receiving a posthypnotic suggestion, we become more generous and more eager to help (Carlson et al., 1988). And given a feeling of elevation after witnessing or learning of someone else’s self-giving deed, our helping will become even more pronounced.” Reciprocity Norm- return help for help. Social Responsibility NormWe should help those in need Close Up (section of the book): “Automatic Prejudice” Prejudice is 1. Explicit 2. Implicit: a. Reflected in behavior + attitudes + unthinking b. Implicit Racial Associations: Negative associations expressed People associate positive or negative bias with race issues Automatic perception of anger or threat in racial/type faces Unconscious Patronization: Less exacting standards and patronizing attitude for minorities Hinders minority student achievement “Subtle bigotry of low expectations” Race Influences Perceptions More expectations based on race Reflexive Bodily Response Physical response to race, amygdala Feelings, “It is what we do with feelings that matters.” Monitor feelings and adjust