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Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow LO 1 Define social psychology and identify how it is different from sociology. LO 2 Describe social cognition and how we use attributions to explain behavior. LO 3 Explain how attributions lead to mistakes about the causes of behaviors. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow LO 4 Describe social influence and recognize the factors associated with persuasion. LO 5 Define compliance and explain some of the techniques used to gain it. LO 6 Evaluate conformity and identify the factors that influence the likelihood of someone conforming. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow LO 7 Describe obedience and explain how Stanley Milgram studied it. LO 8 Recognize the circumstances that influence the occurrence of the bystander effect. LO 9 Demonstrate an understanding of aggression and identify some of its causes. LO 10 Recognize how group affiliation influences the development of stereotypes. LO 11 Compare prosocial behavior and altruism. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow LO 12 Identify the three major factors contributing to interpersonal attraction. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow An Introduction to Social Psychology WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY? Social psychology • Study of human cognition, emotion, and behavior in relation to others, including how people behave in social settings Sociology • Sociologists would more likely investigate religious practices, rituals, and organizations. Most obvious differences lie in the methods used to conduct research. Meet Joe Maggio Loving Dad Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Joseph Maggio Before joining Match.com, Joe Maggio was a single father to daughter Kristina. Dating was a challenge, as most of the women Joe met lacked the qualities he desired. Then, with a few clicks and keystrokes, along came Susanne… An Introduction to Social Psychology WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY? Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Research methods • Same general research methods as other psychologists, but often with deception • Often involves confederates who play part of experimental manipulation • Debriefing often occurs • Approval by IRB Stanley & Alexandra Milgram/Alexander Street Press Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow IN THE NAME OF SCIENCE A research confederate in Stanley Milgram’s classic experiment is strapped to a table and hooked up to electrodes. Participants in this study were led to believe they were administering electrical shocks to the confederate when in reality the confederate was just pretending to be shocked. This allowed the researchers to study how far the participants would go applying the shocks—without anyone actually being hurt. 1. _____ studies individuals in relation to others and groups, whereas _____ studies the groups themselves, including cultures and societies. a. Sociology; social psychology b. Social psychology; sociology c. Sociology; a confederate Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow d. A confederate; social psychology Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 2. When a participant has completed his involvement in a research project, generally the researcher will _____ him by discussing aspects of the study and making sure he was not upset or harmed by his involvement. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 3. Social psychology research occasionally involves some form of deception that includes a confederate. How is this type of deception different from the use of double-blind studies? Social Cognition ATTRIBUTIONS Beliefs one develops to explain human behaviors and characteristics, as well as situations Dimensions Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Psychologists often describe three dimensions. • Controllable-uncontrollable • Stable-unstable • Internal-external Let’s take a look at each of these dimensions. Social Cognition ATTRIBUTIONS Attributional dimensions • Controllable-uncontrollable dimensions • Stable-unstable dimensions Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Internal-external dimensions BORIS MINKEVICH / WINNIPEG FREE PRESS Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Left to Die Esther Grant holds a painting of Brian Sinclair, the man who died of a treatable urinary tract infection after waiting in a Winnipeg emergency room for 34 hours. Why was Sinclair ignored, even after various people in the emergency room approached hospital staff to voice their concern? (Kubinec, 2013, September 5) ATTRIBUTIONS Fundamental attribution error • Tendency to overestimate the degree to which the characteristics of an individual are the cause of an event, and to underestimate the involvement of situational factors Credits: Waiter silos, © Slobelix/Agefotostock; Glass jars filled with dollar bills, Mike Kemp/Getty Images; Silhouettes of people, Leontura/Getty Images Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Social Cognition Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow ATTRIBUTIONS Just-world hypothesis • Tendency to believe the world is a fair place and individuals generally get what they deserve Credits: Waiter silos, © Slobelix/Agefotostock; Glass jars filled with dollar bills, Mike Kemp/Getty Images; Silhouettes of people, Leontura/Getty Images Social Cognition Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow ATTRIBUTIONS Self-serving bias • Tendency to attribute successes to personal characteristics and failures to environmental factors Credits: Waiter silos, © Slobelix/Agefotostock; Glass jars filled with dollar bills, Mike Kemp/Getty Images; Silhouettes of people, Leontura/Getty Images Social Cognition Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow ATTRIBUTIONS False consensus effect • Tendency to overestimate the degree to which others think or act like we do Credits: Waiter silos, © Slobelix/Agefotostock; Glass jars filled with dollar bills, Mike Kemp/Getty Images; Silhouettes of people, Leontura/Getty Images Social Cognition Social Cognition ATTITUDES Definition Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Attitudes are relatively stable thoughts, feelings, and responses one has toward people, situations, ideas, and things. Social Cognition ATTITUDES. Sources • Psychologists suggest that attitudes are composed of cognitive (beliefs about object, person, or situation), affective (mood or emotion, emotional evaluation), and behavioral (feelings and beliefs guide behavior) components. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Nurture • Nature seemingly appears to dominate: attitudes. • Attitudes develop through experiences and interactions with the people in our lives, and even through exposure to media (via classical conditioning and observational learning). Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow ATTITUDES • Attitudes are composed of cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. • Cognitive and affective components usually guide the behavioral aspect of an attitude. Nature and Nurture WHY THE ATTITUDE? Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow A study of several hundred pairs of twins concluded that most of the attitude variation among participants resulted from non-shared environmental factors, or distinct life experiences. Genes probably exert their effects indirectly, through personality traits and other genetically determined characteristics. More recent research suggests that political attitudes are influenced by genes. All in the Family? Tony Savino / Corbis / AP Images Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Children and parents frequently have the same attitudes about politics and social issues. To a certain degree, these similarities trace to common personality traits, which are partly inherited. Attitudes are more strongly influenced by life experiences. DIDN’T SEE THAT COMING SOMETHING DOESN’T FEEL RIGHT Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow In the classic Festinger and Carlsmith study, why were higher paid students less inclined to change their attitudes to match their claim? 1. _____ are beliefs about the causes used to explain events, situations, and characteristics. a. Attributions b. Confederates c. Dispositions Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow d. Attitudes 2. Because of the fundamental attribution error, we tend to be more likely to attribute causes of behaviors to the _____. a. characteristics of the situation. b. factors involved in the event. c. length of the activity. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow d. disposition of the person. 3. What three elements comprise an attitude? Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 4. The just-world hypothesis is held by people who believe the world is a fair place; therefore, if someone is suffering, he or she must have done something to deserve it. What are some examples of the just-world hypothesis playing out in current popular stories or the media? Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Social Influence POWER OF OTHERS Social influence • Refers to how a person is affected by others as evidenced in behaviors, emotions, and cognition • Can be obvious or barely noticeable Expectations • Are a form of social influence • Other people’s behavior is partly derived from how we view them, just as our behavior is partly derived from how others view us. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Home in Uganda A group of women sit together in Awake, Uganda, the village where Julius Achon was born and raised. Day-to-day life was difficult, and young Julius dreamed of leaving the village and pursuing a better life in the city. Inspired by the accomplishments of Uganda’s Olympic hurdler John Akii-Bua, he decided to start running. Social Influence PERSUASION AND COMPLIANCE Persuasion Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Intentionally trying to make people change their attitudes and beliefs, which may lead to changes in their behaviors Social Influence PERSUASION AND COMPLIANCE The source • Credibility dependent on perceived expertise and trustworthiness • Attractiveness The message • Logical and to the point • Amount of fear-inducing Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow The audience • Children more likely than middle age adults to be persuaded • Emotional state • Focus Fast and Free Image of Sport Photos/Newscom. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Julius wins the 1500 meters at the 2005 Payton Jordan U.S. Open at Stanford University. With two Olympics under his belt, the young runner had enjoyed an extremely successful athletic career, but his focus was beginning to shift onto something bigger—the task of providing for 11 orphans back home in Uganda. Social Influence PERSUASION Elaboration likelihood model • Proposes that persuasion hinges on the way people think about an argument, Can occur via one of two pathways Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Central route • Peripheral route Social Influence COMPLIANCE Compliance • Changes in behavior at the request or direction of another person or group, who in general does not have any true authority Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Techniques Door-in-the-face technique • Compliance technique that involves making a large request first, followed by a smaller request AP Images for Human Rights Campaign Foot in the Door Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Reverend James Ishmael Ford goes door-to-door in Providence, Rhode Island, talking to residents about marriage equality. If Rev. Ford can just get his “foot in the door,” the resident might be willing to talk to him. With the foot-in-the-door technique, the person makes a small request (“May I have just one minute of your time?”) followed by a larger request. (“Would you sign this petition?”). Social Influence Door-in-the-face technique Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Compliance technique that involves making a large request first, followed by a smaller request Social Influence CONFORMITY • Tendency to modify behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions to match those of others Following the crowd Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Tendency to conform to the norms or standards of the social environment; often occurs because people feel compelled to fit in and belong Try This The next time you are outside in a fairly crowded area, look up and keep your eyes toward the sky. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow You will find that some people change their gazes to match yours, even though there is no other indication that something is happening above. photo by William E. Asch, Opinions and Social Pressure, Scientific American, Nov 1955, Vol 193, No.5, 31-35 Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Studying conformity: Asch’s Conformity Experiment Participants in this experiment were asked to look at the lines on two cards, announcing which of the comparison lines was closest in length to the standard line. Social Influence CONFORMITY Why conform? Three major reasons for conformity • Normative social influence Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Informational social influence • Reference group Social Influence CONFORMITY Certain conditions increase likelihood of conforming: 1. The group includes at least three other people who are unanimous. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 2. You have to report your decision in front of others and give your reasons. 3. The task seems difficult to you. 4. You are unsure of your ability to perform the task. Social Influence CONFORMITY Certain conditions decrease the likelihood of conforming: Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 1. At least one other person is going against the group with you. (Asch, 1955) 2. Group members come from individualist, or “mecentered” cultures, meaning they are less likely to conform than centered cultures. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Concepts of Social Influence: Quick Review Social Influence OBEDIENCE Obedience • Changing behavior because we have been ordered to do so by an authority figure Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Milgram’s study AFP/Getty Images Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow BOY SOLDIER A young boy wields a Kalshnikov rifle near Kampala, Uganda. He is among the tens of thousands of children who have been exploited by military groups in Uganda. Julius was just 12 years old when he was abducted by the Lord’s Resistance Army and forced to fight and plunder on the group’s behalf. Social Influence OBEDIENCE Changing behavior because we have been ordered to do so by an authority figure Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • In some cases, the person in charge demands obedience for the good of those less powerful. • Other times, the person wielding power demands obedience for own benefit. Stanley & Alexandra Milgram/Alexander Street Press Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow OBEDIENCE: TROUBLING DISCOVERIES Milgram’s research illuminated the dangers of human obedience. Feeling pressure from authority figures, participants in Milgram’s studies were willing to administer what they believed to be painful and life-threatening electric shocks to other human beings. (Milgram, 1963) Social Influence OBEDIENCE Replicating Milgram’s study Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • This type of research has been replicated in the United States and in other countries. • Findings have remained fairly consistent, with 61–66 percent the of participants continuing to the highest level of shock. 1. _____ occurs when we change our behavior, or act in a way we might not normally, because we have been ordered to do so by an authority figure. a. Persuasion b. Compliance c. Conformity Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow d. Obedience 2. Asch’s experiments with conformity show how difficult it is to resist the urge to conform to the behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions of others. At the same time, many of his participants did not cave in to so-called peer pressure. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Can you think of an everyday example in which somebody successfully resisted the urge to conform? Groups and Relationships WHEN TWO HEADS ARE NOT BETTER THAN ONE Social facilitation • Tendency for the presence of others to improve personal performance when the task or event is fairly uncomplicated and a person is adequately prepared Social loafing • Tendency for people to make less than their best effort when individual contributions are too complicated to measure Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Diffusion of responsibility • Sharing of duties and responsibilities among all group members that can lead to feelings of decreased accountability and motivation Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Groups and Relationships WHEN TWO HEADS ARE NOT BETTER THAN ONE Deindividuation • Diminished sense of personal responsibility, inhibition, or adherence to social norms that occurs when group members are not treated as individuals Risky shift • Tendency for groups to recommend uncertain and risky options Group polarization • Tendency for a group to take a more extreme stance than originally held after deliberations and discussion Groups and Relationships WHEN TWO HEADS ARE NOT BETTER THAN ONE Bystander effect Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Tendency for people to avoid getting involved in an emergency they witness because they assume someone else will help Christopher Sadowski/Splash News/Newscom NY Daily News Archive via Getty Images Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow CASUALTIES OF THE BYSTANDER EFFECT Kitty Genovese (left) and Hugo Tale-Yax (right) lived in different eras, but both were victims of brutal assaults and the cold indifference of bystanders in New York City. Genovese and Tale-Yax might have been saved if the passersby who saw them in distress had called for help. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 1. ________, or the tendency for people to put forth less than their best effort, might occur when individual contributions to the group are difficult to measure. a. Cognitive dissonance b. Social facilitation Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow c. Deindividuation d. Social loafing Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 2. In an experiment studying _____, trick-ortreating children were more likely to take extra candy and/or money if they were anonymous members of a group. 3. _____ is the tendency for people to not react in an emergency, often thinking that someone else will step in to help. a. Group polarization b. The risky shift c. The bystander effect Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow d. Deindividuation Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 4. Group polarization is the tendency for a group to take a more extreme stance after deliberations and discussion. If you were in a group making an important decision, what would you tell the other group members about group polarization and how to guard against it? Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Aggression DEFINING AGGRESSION Aggression • Intimidating or threatening behavior or attitudes intended to hurt someone • Twin studies reveal that identical twins are more likely than fraternal twins to share aggressive traits. Frustration-aggression hypothesis • Suggests that aggression may occur in response to frustration • Male = more direct aggression • Females = more relational aggression Aggression STEREOTYPES Steretoypes • Conclusions or inferences we make about people who are different from us based on their group membership, such as race, religion, age, or gender In-group • Group to which we belong. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Out-group • People outside the group to which we belong Social identity • How we view ourselves within our social group Aggression DISCRIMINATION Ethnocentrism • To see the world only from the perspective of one’s own group involves showing favoritism or hostility to others because of their affiliation with a group Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Scapegoat • Target of negative emotions, beliefs, and behaviors; typically, a member of the out-group who receives blame for an upsetting social situation Following the Crowd CHANGING YOUR MIND TO FIT IN MAY NOT BE A CONSCIOUS CHOICE. • Men judge a woman as more attractive when they believe their peers find that woman attractive—suggesting groupthink is more complex than once thought. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Functional MRI scans showed that the men were not simply lying to fit in. • Activity in their brain’s pleasure centers indicated that their opinions of the women’s beauty really did change. Aggression STEREOTYPES AND DISCRIMINATION Prejudice • Holding hostile or negative attitudes toward an individual or group Stereotype threat Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • A “situational threat” in which individuals are aware of others’ negative expectations, which leads to their fear that they will be judged and/or treated as inferior Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Rudeness on the Internet MEAN COMMENTS ARISE FROM A LACK OF EYE CONTACT MORE THAN FROM ANONYMITY. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Psychologists have largely blamed this disinhibition on anonymity and invisibility: • In a study conducted by Israeli students, far more than anonymity or invisibility, whether or not the subjects had to look into their partner’s eyes predicted how mean they were. Melinda Wenner Moyer. Reproduced with permission. Copyright © 2012 Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Aggression PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR Prosocial behavior • Behavior aimed at benefiting others Altruism • Desire or motivation to help others with no expectation of anything in return Empathy • Ability to understand and recognize another’s emotional point of view, is a major component of altruism. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Aggression ON THE UP SIDE Altruism and toddlers • Many 18-month-old children demonstrate helping behavior. • Areas of brain (medial prefrontal cortex) show increased activity in association with feelings of empathy and helping behavior. Stress reduction and increased happiness • Helping others reduces stress and increases happiness. 1. According to research, which plays a role in aggressive behavior? a. low social identity b. low levels of the hormone testosterone c. low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow d. low levels of ethnocentrism 2. Julius Achon sent money home every month to help cover the cost of food, clothing, and schooling for his 11 adopted children. This is a good example of: a. the just-world hypothesis. b. deindividuation. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow c. individualistic behavior. d. prosocial behavior. 3. Name and describe the different displays of aggression exhibited by males and females. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 4. Students often have difficulty identifying how the concepts of stereotypes, discrimination, and prejudice are related. If you were sitting at a table with a sixth-grade student, how would you explain their similarities and differences? Attraction and Love INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION Important attraction factors • Proximity • Mere-exposure effect Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Similarity • Physical attractiveness Social Media and Psychology RELATIONSHIPS ONLINE Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Advantages • Dating pool broadened. • Around 20 percent of couples who met online had formed lasting relationships. • Enhancement of established relationships Drawbacks • Profiles and other details many be superficial. Attraction and Love THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE Evolutionary explanation Beauty perks Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow • Beauty is sign of health, greater potential for longevity, and successful breeding. • Women may choose more attractive-looking men even when it is not in their best interest to do so. What Is Love? WHAT IS LOVE? Sternberg’s Triangular Model of Love Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Sternberg proposed that there are different kinds of love resulting from combinations of three elements: passion, intimacy, and commitment. The ideal form, consummate love, combines all three elements. The Honeymoon Continues Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow Joseph Maggio After several years of marriage and three new children, the love between Joe and Susanne Maggio is stronger than ever. They have what you might call consummate love, a type of love characterized by intimacy, commitment, and passion. 1. What are the three major factors that play a role in interpersonal attraction? a. social influence, obedience, physical attractiveness b. proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness c. obedience, proximity, social influence Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow d. proximity, love, social influence Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 2. Research has shown that most people prefer looking at pictures of their own faces when reversed, but friends prefer normal, non-reversed photos. This finding supports the _____, suggesting repeated viewing of one’s face in the mirror makes it more attractive. Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow 3. We described how the investment model of commitment can be used to predict the long-term stability of a romantic relationship. How can you use this same model to predict the long-term stability of friendships, positions at work, or loyalty to institutions?