Download Course Outline Human Biology – ATAR Year 12 Unit 3 Semester 1

Course Outline Human Biology – ATAR Year 12
Unit 3 Semester 1 – Homeostasis and Disease
RESOURCES: Human Perspectives Units 3 + 4 (Newton and Joyce)
WACE STUDY GUIDE (Academic Associates)
TERM AND
WEEK
T1 W1
T1 W2
CONTENT STRANDS AND
TEXTBOOK REFERENCES
SIS 1 – Identify, propose hypothesis and
predict outcomes for investigation
SIS 2 – Design investigations
SIS 3 – Conduct investigations
SIS 4 – Organise, represent and discuss data
SIS 5 – Interpret and evaluate texts
SIS 6 – Use diagrams and models
SIS 7 – Communicate to scientific audiences
HP Ch1 Types of investigation p3-5
HP Ch1 Scientific method p5-6
HP Ch1 Planning an investigation p7-9
HP Ch1 Analysing results p9-14
HP Ch1 Reporting p14-15
HP Ch1 Case study p15-16
HP Ch1 Activity 1.1 Validating Pasteur p17
Hp Ch1 Activity 1.2 Mightypharm p18
SU1 – Endocrine glands
SU2 – Hormones from endocrine glands
SHE3 – Recombinant DNA use
ELABORATIONS
Exocrine and endocrine gland – categorized by the
method of distribution of their products
Hormones as products of endocrine gland have a role in
controlling coordination by chemical means
The mode of action of lipid soluble hormones (steroid) and
HOMEWORK AND
ASSESSMENTS
Complete Ch1 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 2
TASK ONE
SCIENCE INQUIRY
SKILLS 4%
HP Ch2 Endocrine glands p22-23
HP Ch2 Hormones p23-24
T1 W3
SU3 – Pituitary gland secretions
SU4 – Hormone interactions with cells
HP Ch2 Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
p24-26
HP Ch2 Pineal gland p27
HP Ch2 Thyroid gland p27
HP Ch2 Parathyroid glands p27-28
HP Ch2 Thymus p28
HP Ch2 Adrenal glands p29
HP Ch2 Pancreas p29-30
HP Ch2 Gonads p30
HP Ch2 Other endocrine tissues p30-31
HP Act 2.1 Endocrine dysfunction p32
HP Act 2.2 Discovery of insulin p32
T1 W4
SU9 – Nerve impulse transmission
HP Ch3 Nerve cells p36-39
HP Ch3 Nerve impulses p40-45
HP Act 3.1 Neuron tour p46
HP Act 3.2 Neuron model p46
HP Act 3.3 Discovery of
neurotransmitters p46
water soluble (protein and amine) hormones differ due to
their ability to cross the cell membrane
Lipid soluble hormones-­­ cross cell membrane, bind with
receptors within cell, activate specific genes on the DNA to
effect protein synthesis
Water soluble hormones-­­ bind with receptors on cell
membrane, activate secondary messenger within cell to trigger
cascade of cellular reactions
The relationship between the hypothalamus and anterior and
posterior lobes of the pituitary gland is important in the
production of the correct hormone
The secretions of the pituitary gland are controlled by the
hypothalamus by either neurosecretory cells or blood
transport (via hypophyseal portal veins) of releasing or
inhibiting factors
Each endocrine gland listed below produces specific
hormones with specific target organs and specific effects:
 hypothalamus (ADH, oxytocin, releasing and inhibiting
factors),
 pituitary gland (FSH, LH, GH, TSH, ACTH, prolactin,
 pancreas (insulin, glucagon),
 parathyroid (PTH),
 thyroid (thyroxine,),
 adrenal glands (adrenaline/noradrenaline,
aldosterone, cortisol)
The structure and function of sensory (afferent) neurons,
interneurons and motor (efferent) neurons allow for the
unidirectional pathway of the nerve impulse in a reflex action
Ch1 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Action potential, polarisation, depolarisations,
repolarisation, hyperpolarisation, refractory period,
threshold, 'all or none' response are used to describe the
changes in the cell membrane as a nerve impulse passes
along a neuron
Electrochemical processes occurring during an action
potential depend on movement of ions across the cell
Complete Ch3 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 5
Complete Ch2 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 4
Ch2 RQ and AYK due
Monday
membrane
Continuous and saltatory conduction of a nerve impulse is
due to the presence of the myelin sheath and influences
the speed of transmission of the nerve impulse
The process of nerve impulse transmission across a
synapse, including the role of neurotransmitters, calcium
ions and vesicles is related to the unidirectional pathway
of nerve transmission
Control of nerve transmission across the synapse is via
the control of neurotransmitter molecules and there are
consequences if their actions are blocked
T1 W5
SU5 – Structure and function of nervous
system
SU10 – Comparison of nerves and
hormones
SHE5 – Cell replacement theory
HP Ch4 Divisions of the nervous
system p50-51
HP Ch4 Autonomic nervous system p52-54
HP Ch4 Comparison of hormonal and
nervous coordination p55-56
HP Act 4.1 Autonomic reflex p57
T1 W6
SU6 – Parts of CNS
HP Ch5 Protection of the CNS p60-61
HP Ch5 Brain p61-67
Peripheral nervous system is the part of the nervous system
that consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain
and spinal cord made up of spinal nerves and cranial nerves
Afferent division -­­ somatic and visceral sensory neurons
Efferent division -­­ somatic and visceral motor neurons
Autonomic nervous system -­­ involuntary motor output of
smooth and cardiac muscle in organs and blood vessels
Somatic nervous system -­­ voluntary motor output of skeletal
muscle contraction
Sympathetic division involved in ‘fight or flight’ responses
which prepares the body for action
Parasympathetic division works in opposition to the
sympathetic division to maintain the body at normal
functioning levels
Ch3 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch4 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 6
Nervous and endocrine responses differ in terms of speed
of action, duration of action, nature and transmission of
message, specificity of message
Reasons for having two different types of messages for co-­­
ordination of body functions
Central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord -­­
parts and areas of each have specific functions
Cerebrum -­­ regions controlling body functions contain
sensory and motor areas
Cerebellum -­­ subconscious control of posture and locomotion
Ch4 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch5 RQ and
T1 W7
HP Act 5.1 The brain p68
HP Act 5.2 Phineas Gage p68-69
Medulla oblongata -­­ control of body functions such as
breathing and the cardiovascular system
Spinal cord -­­ transmission of neural signals between the
brain and the rest of the body but also contains neural
circuits that can independently control numerous reflexes
Meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and the skeleton protect the
CNS
SU7 – Receptors detect changes
SU8 – Reflex arcs
SU11 – Homeostasis and tolerance limits
Location of receptors:
 thermoreceptors-­­ hypothalamus skin mucus
membranes, abdominal organs
 osmoreceptors -­­ hypothalamus
 chemoreceptors -­­ medulla, aorta, carotid artery,
pancreas/Islets of Langerhans
 pain/touch receptors -­­ internal organs and skin
Changes detected by receptors
 external -­­ temperature, pressure/touch, light,
sound, chemicals (taste, smell)
 internal -­­ temperature, body fluid concentration,
blood sugar concentration, blood pressure, pH, oxygen
levels, etc
Types of receptors - use the skin receptors as examples
Reflexes and reactions are differentiated in terms of
neural pathways
The neurons associated with a reflex arc determine the
pathway of transmission of the nerve impulse
Reflex actions are important in protection of the body
Homeostasis maintains bodily function within tolerance
limits for efficient functioning
Tolerance limits are different for different factors and
there are effects on the body if factors are outside these
limits
The components of the stimulus-­­response feedback model
include: stimulus, receptor, modulator, effector, feedback
Body actions and the environment can cause tolerance
limits to be breached
HP Ch6 Receptors p72-73
HP Ch6 Reflexes p73-75
HP Ch6 Homeostasis p75-77
HP Ch6 Stimulus-response and
feedback p77-79
HP Act 6.1 Reflexes p80-81
HP Act 6.2 Reaction time p81-82
HP Act 6.3 More reaction times p82
T1 W8
SU12 – Thermoregulation
SU14 – Body fluid homeostasis
AYK for Mon wk 7
TASK 2
END OF TOPIC TEST
ENDOCRINE AND
NERVOUS SYSTEMS
5%
Ch5 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch6 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 8
Ch6 RQ and AYK due
Monday
HP Ch7 Thermoregulation p85-91
HP Ch7 Regulation of composition of
body fluids p91-97
HP Act 7.1 Investigating
thermoregulation p98
HP Act 7.2 Experiments in a heated
room p98
HP Act 7.3 Effect of drinking on urine
production p98-99
Temperature regulation involves balancing heat input and
output in cold and hot conditions
Methods of heat transfer include conduction, convection,
radiation and evaporation
Metabolism has an important role in heat production
Physiological mechanism of thermoregulation include
TSH secretion, vasoconstriction/vasodilation, sweat
production, shivering
Behavioural mechanisms include changing SA:Vol
(huddling or spreading out), clothing, activity
Stimulus-­­response feedback models of
thermoregulation including include TSH/thyroxine,
vasoconstriction/dilation, heat loss/gain (radiation,
conduction, convection evaporation), sweating,
shivering, metabolic rate (activity levels) and
behavioural actions
Importance of water in body functions; importance of
maintaining body fluid concentrations in terms of
osmosis and hydration
Osmoregulation is the balance between the water and
salt contents of the body fluids and is affected by inputs
and outputs from various locations which differs for
different environmental conditions eg hot and cold
weather, drinking and dehydration
Osmoregulation controlled by nervous responses
(thirst) and endocrine responses (ADH and aldosterone)
Salt and water are ingested via the digestive system and are
lost as sweat (for thermoregulation), urine (excretion of
metabolic wastes) and elimination from the digestive system
(faeces); water is also a by­product of cellular respiration
Structure of the nephron -­­ locations of filtration, re-­­absorption
and active secretion
Effects of ADH and aldosterone on the activities of the
Complete Ch7 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 9
T1 W9
SU13 – Maintenance of blood sugar levels
SU15 – Gas concentration homeostasis
SHE1 – Synthetic hormones treat
dysfunction
SHE2 – Gene therapy treats diabetes
HP Ch8 Regulation of blood sugar p103-107
HP Ch8 Regulation of gas
concentrations p108-111
HP Ch8 Heart rate and blood
pressure p111-113
HP Ch8 Effect of behaviour p113
HP Act 8.1 Breathing rate p114
HP Act 8.2 Investigating behaviour and
homeostatic mechanisms p114-115
nephron
Stimulus­response feedback models for water
regulation including thirst reflex, ADH and
aldosterone
The liver, skeletal muscle, pancreas and adrenal glands in
involved in the use and storage of glucose in the body
Differentiate between
 Chemicals involved in blood sugar regulation
(glucose, glycogen)
 The processes of regulation (glycogenolysis,
glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis)
 The hormones controlling blood sugar levels
(insulin, glucagon, cortisol,
adrenaline/epinephrine)
 Alpha and beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans of the
pancreas
Stimulus-response feedback models for glucose regulation
change after eating and during exercise
CO2, Hydrogen ions and O2 concentration are involved in
the regulation of breathing rate and depth
CO2 and Hydrogen ion levels in the blood are related due
to the chemical reaction of CO2 dissolving in water
The nervous control of breathing (rate and depth) by the
respiratory muscles is by the breathing centre in medulla
oblongata
Conscious control of breathing may have risks of
hyperventilation
Stimulus response feedback model for control of gas
concentration changes with the level of activity
The control of CO2 and O2 are independent of one another
Ch7 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch8 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 10
T1 W10
SU11 – Homeostasis and tolerance limits
SHE1 – Synthetic hormones treat
dysfunction
TASK 3
EXTENDED RESPONSE
ENDOCRINE
DYSFUNCTION
4%
HP Ch9 Hormonal causes of
disruptions p118-121
HP Ch9 Treatment of hormone deficiencies
using synthetic hormones p122-123
HP Ch9 Behavioural causes of disruption
p123-124
HP Ch9 Disease disrupts homeostasis p124
T2 W1
HP Act 9.1 Regulation of blood
sugar p125-126
HP Act 9.2 Thyroid hormone p126
SU16 – Pathogens and infectious disease
SU17 – Transmission of pathogens
HP Ch10 Pathogens p129-132
HP Ch10 Transmission of pathogens p132
Ch8 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch9 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 1
A range of pathogens, including but not limited to bacteria
and viruses, produce disease (abnormal pathological
conditions with specific symptoms)
Difference between bacteria and viruses are based on
structure, reproduction and size
Infectious disease can be transmitted to unrelated hosts
whereas non-infectious diseases causes are not eg genetic
conditions, cardiovascular disease
Different diseases are transferred by each method and
control of spread is related to the prevention of
transmission:




direct/indirect contact: problems of sharing drink
bottle and syringes; coughing and sneezing
transfer of body fluids: blood transfusion, sexual
contact and kissing
vectors: mosquitoes, fleas
contaminated water/food: problems of using re-­­
Ch9 RQ and AYK due
Monday
T2 W2
T2 W3
SU18 – Body’s external defences
SU19 – Non-specific immune responses
HP Ch10 Defences against disease p132-133
HP Ch10 Non-specific defences p133-137
HP Ch10 Lymphatic system and non-specific
defence p137-138
HP Ch10 Helping the body’s non-specific
defences p138-139
HP Act 10.1 Fever p140-141
HP Act 10.2 Reye’s syndrome p141
HP Act 10.3 Skin bacteria p141-142
SU21 – Passive and active immunity
SU22 – Specific immune response
HP Ch11 Lymphocytes and
macrophages p145
HP Ch11 Specific defences p145-151
HP Ch11 Types of immunity p151-152
T2 W4
SU20 – Antivirals and antibiotics
SHE 3 – Recombinant DNA use
cycled water (have all viruses been removed) or
potable water sources during flood; sources of food
contamination
The body has physical barriers depending on the location
within the body:
 skin -­­ lysozyme, sebum, layers of skin
 digestive tract -­­ pH, vomiting, diarrhoea
 urogenital tract -­­ pH, urine flow
 respiratory system -­­ nostril hair, cilia, mucus,
sneezing,
 ear -­­ hairs, cerumen
 eye -­­ tears, blinking, eyelashes
The inflammatory response involves mast cells, histamine,
heparin changing blood flow and delivering macrophages to
the site of damage
Ongoing effects of passive and active immunity differ
Differentiate between antigen and antibody; lymphocyte and
macrophage - and the specificity of their actions
The site of production and roles of B and T lymphocytes
are specific in the active immune response
Antibody mediated (humoral) response requires B
cells/plasma cells to recognise the antigens and produce
antibodies which inactivate or destroy antigens
Cell mediated response requires the actions of T
lymphocytes (Killer T cells, Helper T cells and Suppressor T
cells)
Primary and secondary responses to exposure of an antigen
(or vaccine) differ due to the presence of memory cells
The causes and benefits of a fever (including role of
hypothalamus) depend on the effects of temperature on
viruses
Vaccines can be made of attenuated or low virulent forms
of pathogens
Complete Ch10 RQ
and AYK for Mon wk 3
Ch10 RQ and AYK due
Monday
TASK 4
END OF TOPIC TEST
SHE 4 – Participation in immunisation
HP Ch11 Vaccines p152-155
HP Ch11 Issues with production and use of
vaccines p156-157
HP Ch11 Participation p158
HP Ch11 Antibiotics p158-160
HP Ch11 Antivirals p161
HP Ch11 Act 11.1 Briefing paper p161
HP Ch11 Act 11.2 Animal testing in
manufacture of vaccines p161
HP Ch11 Act 11.3 Supporting immunisation
programs p161
T2 W5
T2 W6
T2 W7
REVISION
DNA technology is used to produce bacteria that produce
vaccines (transgenesis)
Antibiotic and anD antiviral drugs are only effective in
controlling their specific pathogens
The mode of action of antibiotics and antiviral drugs differ
due to the nature of the pathogen
Antibiotic resistance has a range of causes and has
implications for future effectiveness of that antibiotic
HOMEOSTASIS AND
RESPONSE TO
INFECTION
5%
Complete Ch11 RQ
and AYK for Mon wk 5
Ch11 RQ and AYK due
Monday
TASK 5
SEMESTER ONE EXAM
20%
TASK 5
SEMESTER ONE EXAM
20%
Human Biology ATAR Year 12
Unit 3 Semester 1 – Homeostasis and disease
This unit explores the nervous and endocrine systems and the mechanisms that help maintain the systems of the body to function within
normal range, and the body’s immune responses to invading pathogens. The complex interactions between body systems in response to
changes in the internal and external environments facilitate the maintenance of optimal conditions for the functioning of cells. Feedback
systems involving the autonomic nervous system, the endocrine system and behavioural mechanisms maintain the internal environment for
body temperature, body fluid composition, blood sugar and gas concentrations within tolerance limits. The structure and function of the
endocrine system, including the glands, hormones, target organs and modes of action, can demonstrate the many interactions that enable the
maintenance of optimal cellular conditions. The structure and function of the autonomic nervous system, and its relationship with other parts
of the nervous system, can be linked to the roles each play in maintaining homeostasis of internal environmental conditions. Comparing and
contrasting the endocrine and nervous systems can highlight the roles of each in homeostasis. Humans can intervene to treat homeostatic
dysfunction and influence the quality of life for individuals and families. Different body systems have mechanisms, including physical and
chemical barriers that protect the body against invasion by pathogens. The non--­specific actions of the body can be aided by the use of
antibiotics and antiviral drugs to counter the invasion or reduce the effect of the pathogen. Specific resistance mechanisms involve the
recognition of invading pathogens and produce long--­lasting immunity. Vaccinations can result in immunity to infection by exposure to
attenuated versions of the pathogens.
Unit content


An understanding of the Year 11 content is assumed knowledge for students in Year 12. It is recommended that students studying
Unit 3 and Unit 4 have completed Unit 1 and Unit 2.
This unit includes the knowledge, understandings and skills described below. This is the examinable content.
Science Inquiry Skills (SIS)
1. identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes
2. design investigations, including the procedure(s) to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or
secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics, including animal ethics
3. conduct investigations, including the collection of data related to homeostasis and the use of models of disease transmission,
safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data
4. represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including the use of mean, median, range and probability; organise and analyse data to
identify trends, patterns and relationships; discuss the ways in which measurement error, instrumental accuracy, the nature of the
procedure and the sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and
justify conclusions
5. interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate models, processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of
available evidence, including interpreting confidence intervals in secondary data; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments
6. select, use and/or construct appropriate representations, including diagrams, models and flow charts, to communicate
conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions
7. communicate to specific audiences, and for specific purposes, using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including
scientific reports
Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)
1. Synthetic hormones may be developed to control or treat endocrine dysfunction including diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and
hyperthyroidism, to improve the quality of life for individuals
2. Gene therapy could be used to treat a range of diseases including diabetes mellitus
3. Hormones and vaccines are developed using recombinant DNA and associated biotechnological techniques
4. The decision to participate in immunisation programs can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is
considered
5. Cell replacement therapy has the potential to treat nervous system disorders including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases
Science Understanding (SU)
1. The hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, thymus, gonads, pineal and adrenal glands are endocrine glands
found in the human body.
2. Hormones secreted from the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas and adrenal glands are involved in
homeostasis by affecting specific target organs.
3. The secretions of the pituitary gland are controlled by the hypothalamus through transport of hormones either via nerve cells or
the vascular link between them.
4. Hormones can be lipid--­ soluble and able to cross cell membranes to bind with and activate intracellular receptors or, water--­soluble and
able to bind with and activate receptors on cell membranes and require secondary messengers to affect cell functioning.
5. Structure and function of the divisions of the nervous system can be observed and compared at different levels in detecting and
responding to the changes in the internal and external environments including:
 central--­peripheral
 afferent--­efferent
 autonomic--­somatic
 sympathetic--­ parasympathetic
6. The parts of the central nervous system, including the brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, ypothalamus, corpus
callosum) and spinal cord, have specific roles in the coordination of body functions and are protected by the meninges and
cerebrospinal fluid.
7. Different receptors detect changes in the internal and external environments including thermoreceptors, osmoreceptors,
chemoreceptors and receptors for touch and pain.
8. The reflex arc comprises of specially structured neurons including sensory, inter--­ and motor neurons, to transmit information from the
receptor to the effector to respond rapidly to stimuli
9. Transmission of nerve impulses is via electro-chemical changes that occur at the generation of the impulse, the propagation of the
impulse along the nerve fibre and the transfer of the impulse across the synapse.
10. The nervous and endocrine systems work together to coordinate functions of all body systems but differ in terms of:
 speed of action
 duration of action
 nature and transmission of the message
 specificity of message
11. Homeostatic processes involve nerves and hormones in maintaining the body’s internal environment within tolerance limits
through the control of metabolism and physiological and behavioural activities.
12. Thermoregulation occurs by the control of heat exchange and metabolic activity through physiological and behavioural
mechanisms.
13. Blood sugar levels are maintained by controlling of sugar uptake, its storage and release by cells and use in metabolism; these
processes involve the hormones of the pancreas and adrenal glands.
14. Body fluid concentrations are maintained by balancing water and salts via the skin, digestive system and the kidneys, which
involve the actions of ADH and aldosterone on the nephron, and the thirst reflex.
15. Gas concentrations are controlled by balancing the intake of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide via the lungs, through the
actions of the medulla oblongata and the autonomic nervous system
16. Infectious diseases caused by invasion of pathogens in the form of viruses and bacteria can be transmitted from one host to
another
17. Transmission of pathogens occurs by various mechanisms including through:
 direct and indirect contact
 transfer of body fluids
 disease-­­specific vectors
 contaminated food and water
18. The body’s external defence mechanisms against pathogens include features of the:
 skin
 digestive tract
 urogenital tract
 respiratory system
 the ear
 the eye
19. Pathogens that enter the body are targeted by non-specific immune responses of inflammation and fever.
20. Antiviral and antibiotic drugs are used for treating infections and differ in their specificity to pathogens.
21. Passive immunity can be acquired as antibodies gained through the placenta or antibody serum injections; active immunity can be
acquired through natural exposure to the pathogen or the use of vaccines.
22. Immunity is gained through the exposure to specific antigens by the production of antibodies by B lymphocytes and the provision of cell­­ mediated immunity by T lymphocytes; in both cases memory cells are produced
Course outline Human Biology – ATAR Year 12
Unit 4 Semester 2 – Human variation and revolution
RESOURCES: Human Perspectives Units 3+4 (Newton and Joyce)
WACE STUDY GUIDE (Academic Associates)
TERM AND
WEEK
T2 W8
CONTENT STRANDS AND
TEXTBOOK REFERENCES
SU1 – Mutations are source of variation
SU2 – Genotypes produce phenotypes
SU3 – Mutations introduce new alleles
HP Ch12 Gene pools p166
HP Ch12 Mutations p166-167
HP Ch12 Mutagens p167
HP Ch12 Somatic and germline mutations p167
HP Ch12 Effects of mutations p167-171
HP Ch12 Activity 12.1 Incidence of cancer p172
HP Ch12 Activity 12.2 Venusians p173-174
ELABORATIONS
Mutations as a permanent change to the
sequence of DNA (genetic code) influence protein
synthesis and cause changes in cellular chemicals
(enzymes, hormones) or structures
Mutagens of different types damage the DNA
or affect DNA replication or meiosis
Differentiate between gene and chromosome
mutations
Chromosome mutations: deletion, inversion,
translocation, non-disjunction can result during the
processes of meiosis
Gene mutations: deletion, substitution,
insertion can arise during DNA replication
Combinations of alleles from dominance, codominance, sex-linkage, multiple alleles and
polygenic inheritance of characteristics produce a
variety of phenotypes
Variation in genotype may result in
phenotypes which provide a survival
advantage e.g. sickle cell anaemia trait
provides a survival advantage to individuals
HOMEWORK AND
ASSESSMENTS
Complete Ch12 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 9
T2 W9
SU4 – Representing populations as gene pools
SU5 – Gene pools are dynamic
HP Ch14 Changes to allele frequencies in
gene pools p196-201
HP Ch14 Activity 14.1 A model of genetic drift
T2 W10
SU6 – Incidence of genetic diseases
SU7 – Natural selection
SU8 – Mechanisms underpinning theory of
in malaria affected areas
Mutations may produce new alleles which
may be advantageous or disadvantageous
e.g. variation in human skin pigmentation -­­
light pigmentation an advantage in
populations living far from equator (Vit D)
but a disadvantage to those living close to
equator (melanoma)
Gene pool is the sum of all alleles carried by
members of a population
Gene pools may vary in their composition at
different times and or at different locations e.g.
ABO blood groups in indigenous populations
Impact of mutations on gene pools is affected by
whether it is a germ line or somatic mutation
Founders Effect -­­ influence of a small, non-­­
representative gene pool on the frequency of alleles in
subsequent generations compared to the original
population e.g. Ashkenazi Jews, Bounty mutineers
Random Genetic Drift -­­ influence of random
events such mating choices, survival of offspring
and effects of environment on the population
gene pool; will affect small populations more than
large populations
Effects of migration on gene flow between
populations influencing the proportions of
alleles in each population
Effects of geographical, social, cultural barriers
to gene flow within and between gene pools
Factors leading to certain undesirable genetic
conditions remaining in particular human
populations (gene pools): Thalassemia, Sickle
cell anaemia (both in the heterozygous form
Ch12 RQ and AYK due
Monday
TASK SIX
EXTENDED RESPONSE
MUTATIONS IN
evolution by natural selection
HP Ch14 Genetic diseases p201-202
HP Ch14 The theory of evolution through
natural selection
HP Ch14 Activity 14.2 Sickle-cell haemoglobin
HP Ch14 Activity 14.3 Natural selection
T3 W1
SU9 – Biotechnological techniques
SHE1 – Developments in biotechnology give
access to genetic information
SHE2 – Biotechnology gives evidence of
give some sort of survival advantage in areas of
malaria) and Tay-Sachs disease
Natural selection as a result of the struggle for
survival under particular conditions
The concept of natural selection is supported by
evidence from artificial selection eg breeding of
particular strains or breeds in agriculture -­­
cattle, sheep, horses
Selection works on phenotypes -­­ explains why some
disadvantageous recessive alleles still exist in the
population
Variation – from processes of meiosis, mutations and
epigenetics
Struggle for existence – being able to survive long
enough to reproduce passing the alleles onto the next
generation
Isolation – no gene flow between similar gene pools
(populations), due to geographic, cultural,
behavioural barriers
Differential selection – when the probability of
survival for a particular phenotype is greater than
others in the population allowing more of this
phenotype to survive and reproduce, therefore
leaving more offspring with the advantageous allele
in the next generation
When the gene flow between similar populations is
restored, interbreeding does not occur thus
there are two species rather than populations
Processes involved in polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR)
 denaturing, hybridisation and synthesis of
DNA involving the change in temperature and
use of primers and DNA polymerase
HUMAN EVOLUTION
5.5%
Complete Ch14 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 1
Ch14 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch13 RQ and
Gel electrophoresis for the purpose of DNA
sequencing
 separation of DNA fragments is due to electrical
HP Ch13 The human genome p177-186
charge and the size of the DNA fragments
HP Ch13 The identification of hereditary
 DNA fragments are tagged with fluorescent
diseases p187
nucleotides for easy identification
HP Ch13 Gene therapy p188
 DNA is cut into fragments using restriction
HP Ch13 Cell replacement therapy and tissue
enzymes
engineering p189
DNA sequencing by Sanger method and be aware
of new technologies to sequence faster and more
HP Ch13 Activity 13.1 Electrophoresis simulation accurately
evolutionary relationships
T3 W2
p190
HP Ch13 Activity 13.2 Restriction enzymes p190191
HP Ch13 Activity 13.3 Investigating
biotechnological techniques p191
Processes involved in polymerase Chain Reaction
SIS3 – Conduct investigations including the use
(PCR)
of PCR and gel electrophoresis

T3 W3
SU10 – Comparative DNA studies
HP Ch15 Comparative studies in
biochemistry p217-223
denaturing, hybridisation and synthesis of
DNA involving the change in temperature and
use of primers and DNA polymerase
Gel electrophoresis for the purpose of DNA
sequencing
 separation of DNA fragments is due to electrical
charge and the size of the DNA fragments
 DNA fragments are tagged with fluorescent
nucleotides for easy identification
 DNA is cut into fragments using restriction
enzyme
Evidence for evolution gained from comparative
studies of DNA, retroviruses and proteins (including
ubiquitous proteins)
Comparative anatomy such as embryonic
AYK for Mon wk 2
TASK SEVEN
SCIENCE INQUIRY
TECHNIQUES IN
BIOTECHNOLOGY
6%
Ch13 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Biotech box
booked
Complete Ch15 RQ
and AYK for Mon wk 4
HP Ch15 Comparative studies in
anatomy p223-227
HP Ch15 Geographical distribution p228-229
HP Ch15 Evolution and creation p229
HP Ch15 Activity 15.1 Amino acid sequencing
T3 W4
SU11 – Fossil record is incomplete
SU12 – Sequencing the fossil record
HP Ch16 Fossil formation p236
HP Ch16 Discovery of fossils p236
T3 W5
SU13 – relative and absolute dating techniques
SIS3 – conduct investigations using techniques
of relative and absolute dating
development, homologous structures and vestigial
organs
Similarities and differences in such evidence suggests
evolutionary relatedness
Phylogenetic trees use bioinformatics to show the
relationships between groups of organisms based
on genetic information
Fossilisation requires the remains of organisms or
their imprints to be covered and remain
undisturbed during rock formation around them
Factors affecting fossil formation including
 type or organism -­­ hard parts fossilise
between than soft body parts
 soil pH, mineral content of soil
 weathering and erosion
Limitations in the current fossil record
 incomplete fossils
 not all organisms had representatives in the
fossil record
 not all conditions produce fossils of organisms
remains
 those not discovered or recognized
Relative dating – no age given, only as comparison to
other fossils as before or after or at the same time
Absolute dating – dates with accuracy range given
Each of these is suitable to particular fossil types
The geological timeline – chronological order of
geological formations; can be sectioned into different
time sections related to fossil type present
Relative dating techniques including
 stratigraphy – law of superposition; rock strata
correlation
 index fossils – fossils with a wide
TASK EIGHT
END OF TOPIC TEST
MUTATIONS AND
GENE POOLS
7.5%
Ch15 RQ and AYK due
Monday
TASK NINE
EXTENDED RESPONSE
BIOTECHNOLOGY
TECHNIQUES AND
HP Ch16 Dating of fossils p237-242
HP Ch16 Phylogenetic trees p242
HP Ch16 The geological time scale p243-244
HP Ch16 Problems with the fossil record p245
HP Ch16 Activity 16.1 Radioisotope methods of
dating p245-246
HP Ch16 Activity 16.2 Stratigraphy
HP Ch16 Activity 16.3 Phylogenetic trees
T3 W6
SU14 – Humans as great apes
HP Ch17 What are primates p252-255
HP Ch17 Evolutionary trends within the
primates p256-257, p261-262, p264 (digits and
size of cerebral cortex only)
HP Ch17 Activity 17.2 Mobility of the human
thumb p266-267
T3 W7
SU15 – Evolutionary pathways for hominids
HP Ch18 Evolutionary trends p272-281
HP Ch18 Activity 18.1 Hominin skulls p282
distribution and with a limited time span
Absolute dating techniques:
 radiocarbon – relies on the known and
constant radioactive decay rate of carbon-­­14,
that the exchange of carbon between
organisms and their environment stops at
death, and the carbon-14 of the atmosphere is
known
 potassium--­argon dating relies on the known and
constant breakdown of radioactive potassium to
produce inert argon gas which is trapped in the
fossil
Limitations of these particular dating methods
delineate the fossil materials on which they can be
used and the age of the fossil being dated; there are
other methods that can be used to also provide
corroborating evidence of the age of fossils
Classification groups of hominids (Family level
Hominidae -­­ of classification including great apes and
humans) and hominins (Tribe level Hominini – of
classification includes only modern and ancestral
humans)
Features of primates
Trends in features in the primate groups in the
differences listed
Adaptations to bipedalism and quadrupedalism –
differences in the skull, spine, pelvis, legs and feet
Features (temporal and geographical distribution,
cranial capacity, jaw/skull features, post cranial
skeleton,) of the following species and compare
with modern humans and great apes:
o Australopithecus afarensis
HUMAN EVOLUTION
5.5%
Complete Ch16 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 6
Ch16 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch17 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 7
Ch17 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch18 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 8
HP Ch18 Activity 18.2 Cranial capacity and
phylogenetic trees p283
HP Ch18 Activity 18.3 Upright stance and
striding gait p283-284
T3 W8
SU15 – Evolutionary pathways for hominids
T3 W9
HP Ch19 Effect of environment on hominin
evolution p288
HP Ch19 Australopithecines p289-293
HP Ch19 Homo habilis p294-295
HP Ch19 Homo erectus p295-297
HP Ch19 Transition to modern humans
p297-299
HP Ch19 Activity 19.1 Evidence for human
evolution p300
HP Ch19 Activity 19.2 Comparison of human
skulls p300-302
SU16 – Tool use in hominid species
HP Ch20 Australopithecine culture p305-306
HP Ch20 Early Homo p306
HP Ch20 Culture of Homo erectus p306-308
HP Ch20 Neanderthal culture p308-309
HP Ch20 Transition to modern humans
p309-312
HP Ch20 The Denisovans p313-314
Australopithecus africanus
Paranthropus robustus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo neanderthalensis
Homo sapiens
Possible evolutionary pathways showing the
location and time span in the sequence of different
fossil hominin groups
Features (temporal and geographical distribution,
cranial capacity, jaw/skull features, post cranial
skeleton,) of the following species and compare
with modern humans and great apes:
o Australopithecus afarensis
o Australopithecus africanus
o Paranthropus robustus
o Homo habilis
o Homo erectus
o Homo neanderthalensis
o Homo sapiens
Possible evolutionary pathways showing the location
and time span in the sequence of different fossil
hominin groups
Tools culture are identified by materials used in
manufacture, the specificity of tools and
complexity of tool making techniques for each of
these Homo species
Cultural advances included the use of fire, art and
spirituality, burial practices, hunter-gatherer
lifestyle, agricultural lifestyle and domestication of
animals
Each Homo group is associated with a culture:
 Oldowan – Homo habilis
o
o
o
o
o
o
Ch18 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch19 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 9
Ch19 RQ and AYK due
Monday
Complete Ch20 RQ and
AYK for Mon wk 10
HP Ch20 The Red Deer Cave people p314-315
HP Ch20 The beginnings of agriculture p315-316
HP Ch20 Modern humans p316-317
HP Ch20 Why study human origins p317


Acheulean – Homo erectus
Mousterian – Homo neanderthalensis
Aurignacian, Soltrean, Magdalenian – Homo sapiens
HP Ch20 Activity 20.1 Are humans unique p318
HP Ch20 Activity 20.2 Chimpanzees,
Neanderthals and humans p318
T3 W10
EXAM REVISION
Use past exam questions to write
1. Extended response answers
2. Short answer responses
3. Multi-choice answers
TERM 3
HOLIDAYS
TERM 3
HOLIDAYS
TASK TEN
END OF TOPIC TEST
EVOLUTION AND
HOMINID TRENDS
7.5%
Ch20 RQ and AYK due
Monday
TASK ELEVEN
SEMESTER TWO EXAM
30%
TASK ELEVEN
SEMESTER TWO EXAM
30%
Human Biology ATAR Year 12
Unit 4 Semester 2 – Human variation and evolution
This unit explores the variations in humans in their changing environment and evolutionary trends in hominids. Humans can show multiple
variations in characteristics due to the effect of polygenes or gene expression. The changing environment can influence the survival of
genetic variation through the survival of individuals with favourable traits. Gene pools are affected by evolutionary mechanisms, including
natural selection, migration and chance occurrences. Population gene pools vary due to interaction of reproductive and genetic processes
and the environment. Over time, this leads to evolutionary changes. Gene flow between populations can be stopped or reduced by barriers.
Separated gene pools can undergo changes in allele frequency, due to natural selection and chance occurrences, resulting in speciation and
evolution. Evidence for these changes comes from fossils and comparative anatomy and biochemical studies. A number of trends appear in
the evolution of hominids and these may be traced using phylogenetic trees. The selection pressures on humans have changed due to the
control humans have over the environment and survival.
Unit content


An understanding of the Year 11 content is assumed knowledge for students in Year 12. It is recommended that students studying
Unit 3 and Unit 4 have completed Unit 1 and Unit 2.
This unit includes the knowledge, understandings and skills described below. This is the examinable content.
Science Inquiry Skills
1. identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes
2. design investigations, including the procedure(s) to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or
secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics, including animal ethics
3. conduct investigations, including the use of virtual or real biotechnological techniques of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), gel
electrophoresis for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)sequencing, and techniques for relative and absolute dating, safely, competently and
methodically for valid and reliable collection of data
4. represent data in meaningful and useful ways; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; discuss the ways
in which measurement error, instrumental accuracy, the nature of the procedure and sample size may influence uncertainty and
limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions
5. interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate models, processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of
available evidence; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments
6. select, use and/or construct appropriate representations, including phylogenetic trees, to communicate conceptual
understanding, solve problems and make predictions
7. communicate to specific audiences, and for specific purposes, using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including
scientific reports
Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE)
1.
developments in biotechnology have increased access to genetic information of species, populations and individuals, existing now or in
the past, the interpretation and use of which may be open to ethical considerations
2.
developments in the fields of comparative genomics, comparative biochemistry and bioinformatics have enabled identification of further
evidence for evolutionary relationships, which help refine existing models and theories
Science Understanding (SU)
1.
mutations in genes and chromosomes can result from errors in DNA replication, cell division or from damage caused by mutagens
2.
different genotypes produce a variety of phenotypes, which are acted on differently by factors in the environment, producing different
rates of survival
3.
mutations are the ultimate source of variation introducing new alleles into a population: new alleles may be favourable or unfavourable
to survival
4.
populations can be represented as gene pools that reflect the frequency of alleles of a particular gene; gene pools can be used to
compare populations at different times or locations
5.
gene pools are dynamic, with changes in allele frequency caused by:
 mutations
 differing selection pressures
 random genetic drift, including the founder effect
 changes in gene flow between adjoining groups
6.
the incidence of genetic diseases in particular populations illustrates the effects of different factors on the dynamics of gene pools,
including the incidence of Tay-Sachs disease, thalassemia and sickle-cell anaemia
7.
natural selection occurs when factors in the environment confer a selective advantage on specific phenotypes to enhance survival and
reproduction
8.
the mechanisms underpinning the theory of evolution by natural selection include inherited variation, struggle for existence, isolation
and differential selection, producing changes to gene pools to such an extent that speciation occurs
9.
biotechnological techniques provide evidence for evolution by using PCR (to amplify minute samples of DNA to testable amounts),
bacterial enzymes and gel electrophoresis to facilitate DNA sequencing of genomes
10.
comparative studies of DNA (genomic and mitochondrial), proteins and anatomy, provide additional evidence for evolution; genomic
information enables the construction of phylogenetic trees showing evolutionary relationships between groups
11.
the fossil record is incomplete and cannot represent the entire biodiversity of a time or a location due to many factors that affect fossil
formation, the persistence of fossils and accessibility to fossilised remains
12.
sequencing a fossil record requires a combination of relative and absolute dating techniques to locate fossils onto the geological timeline
13.
both relative dating techniques, including stratigraphy and index fossils, and absolute dating techniques, including radiocarbon dating
and potassium-argon dating, have limitations of application
14.
humans as primates are classified in the same taxonomic family as the great apes. The species within the family are differentiated by
DNA nucleotide sequences, which brings about differences in:
 relative size of cerebral cortex
 mobility of the digits
 locomotion – adaptations to bipedalism and quadrupedalism
 prognathism and dentition
15.
determining relatedness and possible evolutionary pathways for hominids uses evidence from comparisons of modern humans and the
great apes with fossils of:
 Australopithecus afarensis






16.
Australopithecus africanus
Paranthropus robustus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo neanderthalensis
Homo sapiens
tool use is seen in a number of hominid species and the study of these tools provides important insight into the evolution of the human
cognitive abilities and lifestyles; trends are seen in the changes in manufacturing techniques and the materials used in these tool cultures
of:
 Homo habilis
 Homo erectus
 Homo neanderthalensis
 Homo sapiens