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2
Chapter Two
Heredity and Environment
Learning Objectives
After reading Chapter 2, students will know:

how we inherit traits from our parents, and how those traits are expressed.

the kinds of disorders that are caused by problems in how genes are
inherited.

why adopted children and twins are of special interest to those who study
behavior genetics.

how environmental events exert their influence on developmental
processes.

how one’s family and culture help shape the way that development
unfolds.
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Key Terms and Concepts
Age cohort
Alleles
Autosomes
Base
Base pairs
Behavior genetics
Behavior modification
Cells
Chromosome
Codominance
Congenital anomalies
Deoxyribonucleic acid
Developmental niche
Dominant
Ethnocentrism
Gametes
Gene imprinting
Gene therapy
Genes
Genetic counseling
Genotype
Habituation
Heritability
Heterozygous
Homozygous
Incomplete dominance
Karyotype
Meiosis
Mitosis
Mutation
Nonnormative influences
Normative age graded influences
Normative history graded influences
Nucleotides
Partial schedules
Phenotype
Phobia
Polygenic inheritance
Proteins
Punishment
Recessive
Recombinant DVA technology
Reinforcer
Self concept
Self efficacy
Sex chromosomes
Sex linked traits
Shaping
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Chapter Outline
I.
Molecular Genetics
A. Human cells
1. CELLS – the smallest self contained structures in the human body
2. Cell membrane allows nutrients and other chemicals to enter and
waste products to exit the cell
3. Cytoplasm is the fluid that plays host to specialized structures
4. Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell
5. Endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and ribosomes are
involved in the production of proteins
6. DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID – a large, complex molecule
composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
that contains the genetic code that regulates the functioning and
development of an organism
B. DNA
1. Shaped like a double helix or twisted ladder
2. NUCLEOTIDES – the building blocks of DNA
3. BASE – a nitrogen carbon hydrogen component of nucleotides
a. adenine
b. thymine
c. cytosine
d. guanine
4. BASE PAIRS – a rung in the DNA ladder; the base adenine pairs
only with the base thymine, the base cytosine pairs only with the
base guanine
5. Three things specify differences
a. which side of the ladder each base comes from
b. the order in which the base pairs occur
c. the overall number of base pairs in the nucleotide
6. Only 0.1% of human DNA varies from person to person
C. Genes
1. GENES – the basic units of inheritance that are composed of
sequences of base pairs within the DNA of an organism
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2. Work in gene mapping is proceeding quickly as major
breakthroughs are being announced every week
D. Protein Synthesis
1. PROTEINS – molecules that perform a diverse array of crucial
functions in the human body
2. The process consists of a complex series of reactions
II.
Genes, Chromosomes, and Cell Division
A. CHROMOSOME – a chain of genes visible under a microscope; humans
normally have 46 chromosomes
B. AUTOSOMES - in humans, consists of 22 of the 23 pairs of
chromosomes, except those that determine sex
C. SEX CHROMOSOME – in humans, the 23rd chromosome pair, which
determines sex
D. KARYOTYPE – a photograph of a cell’s chromosomes arranged in pairs
according to size
E. Cell division and reproduction
1. MITOSIS – the process of ordinary cell division that results in two
cells identical to the parent cell
2. MEIOSIS – the process of cell division that yields sperm and ova,
each including one half of a full set of chromosomes
3. GAMETES – reproductive cells that are formed by the process of
meiosis
4. In males, meiosis occurs in the testes
5. In females, meiosis occurs in the ovaries
F. From genotype to phenotype
1. ALLELES – a pair of genes found on corresponding chromosomes
that affect the same trait
2. GENOTYPES – the genetic code of a given individual
3. Simple dominance and recessiveness
a. DOMINANT – in genetics, one gene of a gene pair that will
cause a particular trait to be expressed
b. RECESSIVE – in genetics, one of a gene pair that
determines a trait in an individual only if the other member of
that pair is also recessive
c. PHENOTYPE – in genetics, those traits that are expressed
in the individual
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d. HOMOZYGOUS – the arrangement in which the two alleles
for a simple dominant recessive trait are the same
e. HETEROZYGOUS – the arrangement in which the two
alleles for a simple dominant recessive trait differ
4. Combinations of genes
a. POLYGENIC INHERITANCE – the inheritance of a trait that
is determined by multiple genes
b. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE – the case in which a
heterozygous genotype results in a phenotype that is
intermediate between the phenotypes of dominant versus
recessive homozygous genotypes
c. CODOMINANCE – the case in which both dominant and
recessive alleles are expressed in the phenotype
5. SEX LINKED TRAITS – traits that are determined by genes on the
23rd chromosome pair
G. The variation of traits among individuals
1. Meiosis and individual variation
a. Individual variations occurs in several ways
b. When chromosomes separate at the beginning of meiotic
division, genetic material randomly crosses over resulting in
new recombinant alleles
c. Chance determines which half of the chromosome pairs will
go into which sperm or ovum
d. Which sperm and ovum unite is also determined by chance
2. Mutation
a. MUTATION – an alteration in the DNA that typically occurs
during mitosis or meiosis and is therefore transmitted to
subsequent cells through cell division
b. In mitosis, if a viable mutation occurs early in development, it
will be passed along to all the cells replicated
c. In meiosis, a mutation is incorporated into the genetic code
and passed along to offspring in the sperm or ova
III.
Activity 2a
Genetic and chromosomal disorders
A. CONGENITAL ANOMOLIES – also called birth defects; abnormalities that
result from genetic and chromosomal problems as well as from exposure
to toxins, disease, and such during the prenatal period
B. Sex linked disorders
1. Occur via dominant-recessive genetic patterns
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2. Sex linked disorders also occur when the gametes do not replicate
correctly
3. Chromosomal breakage can also occur; this breakage produces
brain deficiencies
4. Fragile X syndrome is a form of mental retardation that has become
the most common hereditary disorder associated with mental
retardation
 Video 2a
C. Autosomal disorders
Activity 2b
 Article 2a, 2b, 2c
 Video 2b
1. Occur when the other 22 pairs of chromosomes have defects
2. Down syndrome is the most common
3. GENE IMPRINTING – a phenomenon in which gene expression
and phenotype depend on which parent the genes come from
4. Gene imprinting can cause problems if one parent’s genes are
defective
D. Genetic counseling
 Lecture 2b, 2d
1. GENETIC COUNSELING – a widely available resource that can
help potential parents evaluate genetic risk factors in childbearing
and enable them to make choices that reflect their values and
circumstances
Activity 2c, 2d
2. Often includes the analysis of parental medical records and family
histories to construct a genetic pedigree which identifies previous
instances of congenital anomalies
3. If it reveals the presence of a heritable genetic disorder, the
counselor evaluates the couple’s risk of having a baby with the
disorder
 Video 2c

WebVid 2a, 2b
 Lecture 2c
E. Advances in genetic research and treatment
1. RECOMBIANT DNA TECHNOLOGY – an assortment of highly
sophisticated procedures in which DNA is extracted from cell nuclei
and cut into segments; the resulting fragments are then joined to
self replicating elements, in essence forming functional gene
clones, these are then placed in host bacterial cells to be
maintained and cultured
2. GENE THERAPY – an approach to establishing cures for genetic
disorders that can be applied at any point from altering the
molecular structure of DNA to altering the process of protein
synthesis
3. Retroviruses are viruses capable of penetrating cells but they do
not have adverse effects
IV.
Behavior genetics
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 Video 2d
A. BEHAVIOR GENETICS – the study of the relationship between behavior
and genetic makeup
B. HERITABILITY – the extent to which a trait is inherited verses acquired,
thus presuming a genetic basis; note that heritability estimates are
influenced by the environments in which they are considered
C. Adoption studies
1. Studies how adopted children resemble their biological versus
adoptive parents
2. This allows us to understand the relative importance of genetic and
environmental determinants of behavior
 Video 2e
D. Twin studies
1. Twin studies examine the degree to which individuals who are
genetically more alike compare on traits
2. Typically reveals that identical twins show a higher concordance
than fraternal twins
3. Also suggest that a wide range of specific personality traits are at
least partly heritable
4. Special care has to be taken when interpreting results because the
degree of environmental effects needs to be considered
V.
Environmental influences and contexts
A. Basic processes that affect behavior
1. HABITUATION – ceasing to attend or respond to repetitive
stimulation; occurs at several levels, from sensation to perception
to higher cognition
 Video 2f
2. Classical conditioning
a. The kind of learning that occurs when repeated trials and
associations between stimuli and behavior occur
b. PHOBIA – the unreasonable fear of an object or a situation
3. Operant conditioning
a. REINFORCER – a stimulus that increases the likelihood that
the behavior the reinforcer follows will recur
b. PUNISHMENT – a stimulus that decreases the likelihood
that the behavior the punishment follows will recur
c. PARTIAL SCHEDULES – a procedure in which only some
responses are reinforced or punished; produces much
stronger habits that continuous reinforcement
d. SHAPING – systematically reinforcing successive
approximations to a desired behavior
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B. Conditioning, behavior modification, and life
1. Simple learning processes underlie many basic habits
2. BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION – a method that uses conditioning
procedures to change behavior
C. Social learning and the evolving self concept
1. SELF CONCEPT – one’s beliefs and feelings about oneself;
defines who an individual is
2. SELF EFFICACY – what a person believes he or she is capable of
doing in a given situation
VI.
Environment in a broader context: family and culture
A. DEVELOPMENTAL NICHE – the interaction of components that
determines the unique world of each individual
B. Family systems
1. The way family interacts with each other, especially when children
are young, has an intricate and dynamic impact on development
2. There is also a set of nonshared experiences and relationships
3. The birth of a second child complicates things
a. The mother spends less time with the first child
b. An affectionate relationship with the father tends to become
closer
c. Conflict with the mother increases
C. The family as transmitter of culture
1. In complex multiethnic societies, the embedding of culture in
children is more difficult
2. The cultural traditions of a family may be in conflict with the majority
3. ETHNOCENTRISM – the tendency to assume that our own beliefs,
perceptions, customs, and values are correct or normal and that
those of others are inferior or abnormal
4. Socialization is a lifelong process through which individuals are
taught to function as members of a social group
D. Sociocultural influences on development across the lifespan
1. AGE COHORT – group of individuals of similar ages
 Lecture 2a
2. NORMATIVE AGE GRADED INFLUENCES - the biological and
social changes that normally happen at predictable ages
3. NORMATIVE HISTORY GRADED INFLUENCES – the historical
events that affect large numbers of individuals at the same time
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4. NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCES – the individual environmental
factors that do not occur at any predictable time in a person’s life
5. Mediating factors
a. Age
b. Gender
c. Ethnicity
6. Human development: an interactive process
a. Different backgrounds, different motivations, and different
interests need to be considered when thinking about
development
b. It is important to consider the ways in which hereditary and
environmental factors that interact to produce the
uniqueness of each individual
Lecture Suggestions
 Lecture 2a.
History and its Influence
When discussing the difficulties of developmental research in the context of historygraded and age-graded, many of the students in an undergraduate class have difficulty
understanding how much the world has changed in the last 100 years. I find it useful to
present a series of findings about how health care, life expectancy, etc. have changed
over time and how these changes make it difficult to study many seemingly
straightforward development issues (e.g., does memory get worse as we age, how do
the schools of today compare to those of 30 years ago). The American History website
sponsored by Kingwood College (http://kclibrary.nhmcced.edu/decades.html) provides a
very nice list of cultural events by decade for the United States. The CDC website with
the Center for Statistics (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lifexpect.htm) provides very
useful statistical information about a number of important health issues. For example,
the average life expectancy in 1900 in the US was 47.3 years while in 2002 it was 77.3
years.
 Lecture 2b.
Genetic Counseling
Develop a lecture on the pros and cons of genetic counseling. Genetic counseling is a
widely available resource according to the text that can aid potential parents in
evaluating the genetic risk factors in childbearing and provide information that can help
them make informed decisions. It is important to provide the students with information
regarding the information that can be gleaned from this process. This involves
providing information about the analysis of family histories as well as the use of prenatal
testing. The options available to the potential parents, such as deciding to adopt if the
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risk of genetic problems is high given family history, should be discussed. The options
available to parents if genetic problems are identified through the use of prenatal tests
can challenge the parent’s value systems.
Questions to be discussed can include: What prenatal tests should be routine? What
are the justifiable factors for terminating a pregnancy? What role should insurance
companies play in the decision process and in determining the factors that may be
considered for terminating a pregnancy? In a broader scope, who should have a say in
determining whether parents can terminate a pregnancy?
It may be useful to tell the class some examples of reproductive rights manipulations in
the U.S. For example, eugenics programs that resulted in the sterilization of the
mentally retarded were legal up through the 1960’s. See information available at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization.
 Lecture 2c.
Genetic Treatments, Genetic Engineering, and Cloning
The potential for the availability of genetic treatments has raised a number of interesting
ethical and practical questions. Although genetic treatments and cloning are still
primarily in the development stages, they hold great promise if certain technical
obstacles can be overcome. There is a good section in the Craig textbook on these
procedures. The use of genetic engineering, primarily in the form of selective breeding,
to modify the characteristics of organisms in agriculture has been practiced for decades.
The use of these procedures in humans has sparked much debate and the passage of
some laws, even though the technology remains limited. The use of cloning technology
to produce organs for transplants or to treat diseases such as Parkinson’s could
potentially alleviate the suffering of large numbers of people. Recent movies (e.g., The
Island and The 6th Day) have examined the issues of cloning.
See these websites for more information.
http://www.bionetonline.org/English/Content/sc_leg1.htm
http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/genetics_reproduction/cloning.html
 Lecture 2d.
Fertility: When and How to Make it Happen
There are many misconceptions about fertility. Develop a lecture examining the biology
underlying successfully getting pregnant and reproduction or the myths associated with
sex and pregnancy (Richmond et al., 2001). Topics can include: 1) how easy is it to get
pregnant; 2) can you increase your odds of having a boy or a girl; and 3) infertility. For
example, most students know that fertility rates decrease with age. However, recent
research suggests that the decrease may begin earlier than previously thought. This is
interesting because more and more women are delaying child rearing until later ages.
The combination is resulting in a higher rate of infertility as couples try to build a family.
See these websites and articles.
http://www.babyplan.org/uk/fertWindow.asp
http://www.cognettechnology.com/store/conunyourmos.html
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http://www.chem-tox.com/infertility/
Richmond, D.M., Sabatini, M.M., Krueger, H.L., & Rudy, S.J. (2001). Contraception:
Myths, facts, and methods. Dermatology Nursing, 13, 19-26.
Class Activities
Activity 2a.
Magazine/Newspaper Survey
Ask students to search through recent issues of magazines and newspapers for articles
on genetic research. Students can locate the original research report in order to
determine how accurately the magazine or newspaper reported the story. Students can
present their results either in a written paper and/or a presentation to the class.
Activity 2b.
Living with Down Syndrome & other Developmental Disorders
Ask students to investigate how individuals and families are affected by developmental
disorders, such as Fragile X syndrome, Down syndrome, Williams syndrome, etc.
Students can make presentations to the class about what life is like for a child born with
one of the syndromes described in the chapter. It is likely that some of your students
will know individuals with some of these syndromes. The students may be able to share
anecdotes about these individuals.
Activity 2c.
Genetic Counseling
Arrange for a professional genetic counselor to visit the class and to explain how
couples planning a family are provided with information about genetics and assessed
for potential disorders occurring in their offspring. Alternatively, students can consider
whether information gained through genetic counseling should be made available to the
government and health insurance companies using Handout 2-1. Students can be
instructed to interview 3 other people outside of class using this handout and can
discuss the various responses in small groups in the next class.
Activity 2d.
Critical Thinking Journals
Imagine you and your partner received information from a genetic counselor that a
certain type of birth defect was possible for your children. For example, the counselor
estimates that odds are your child has a 10% chance of having a mild birth defect (i.e.,
one that would cause little hindrance to the child in their quality of life). What would you
do? What preparations or decisions would you make? What options would you want
available to you? Now do the same thing with a moderate (i.e., one that would cause
an impairment in the child’s quality of life that could be handled with additional
resources and time) and severe birth defect (i.e., one that would cause a major
decrease in the child’s quality of life).
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Internet Video Clips
 WebVid 2a.
Time: 3:31
Description of different types of genetic testing:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJuo937gz44
 WebVid 2b.
Time: 9:02
BBC documentary on Designer Babies with commentary by Princeton
professor Lee Silver:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TN9ep4B9Hw0&feature=PlayList&p=C7E239A
945F4C4BA&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=56
Pearson/Prentice Hall Video Clips
 Video 2a.
Down Syndrome
Time: 4:49
This vignette focuses on an interview with a young adult with Down Syndrome (Tim)
and his mother (Pam). The clip notes the genetic cause of Down Syndrome and
focuses on the common problems associated with Down Syndrome. In particular, this
clip emphasizes the learning capabilities of someone with Down Syndrome, and also
highlights speech problems that sometimes accompany this disorder.
Related discussion questions:
 How might modern medical advances influence the incidence of Down
Syndrome, when comparing future birth statistics to those of 2 or 3 generations
ago?
 According to the mother interviewed, why is it especially important for infants with
Down Syndrome to have early hearing and visual testing?
 In what ways do individuals with Down Syndrome benefit from modern medical
advances?
 What kinds of social support do you think would be especially important to
parents or caregivers of a child with Down Syndrome?
 What advantages and disadvantages are associated with placing individuals with
Down Syndrome in regular classes, both for the individual and for other students
in the class? Do you support “mainstreaming” these students, or do you
advocate providing special educational settings for them? Explain your
viewpoint.
 Video 2b. Educating Children with Down Syndrome
Time: 1:18
This segment describes an intervention therapy for young children with Down
Syndrome. The segment shows a 19-month-old child, Max, who is receiving these
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services in Charlottesville, Virginia The conclusion is that early intervention can help
Down Syndrome children maximize their potential.
Related discussion questions:
 Why is much of the therapy in this program done at home?
 Why is the program undertaken as early in development as possible?
 What kinds of limitations would a child with Down Syndrome typically encounter?
Can you think of learning experiences that might be especially helpful for a child
with this genetic disorder?
 What advantages do you think would be obtained by having parents closely
involved in the therapy program?
 Do you believe that intervention programs such as the one noted in the video
segment should be provided through government funding? Why or why not?
 Video 2c. Genetic Counseling
A genetic counselor is interviewed. She talks about the purposes of genetic counseling,
when genetic counseling is appropriate, and how a genetic counselor works with family
members to understand genetic risks and available tests, explain diagnoses, and
provide counseling about treatment options.
Related discussion questions:
 When would genetic counseling be a good option for a person to explore?
 Why is a family “pedigree” constructed in the process of genetic counseling?
 Why is genetic counseling becoming more common?
 Should families in every case have the final right to determine whether a
genetic condition will be treated? Why or why not?
 If you and your partner chose to become pregnant, and if one of you has a
strong family history of a genetic condition, would you choose to undergo
prenatal genetic testing? Why or why not?
How might a person’s religious beliefs influence that person’s decision to
undergo genetic testing?
 Video 2d. Cloning Humans?
Time: 1:40
This segment describes the techniques involved in cloning and provides comments from
medical ethicist George Annas about the feasibility and ethics of cloning humans. The
segment notes that cloning may not be safe, and hence should not be used to create
new human life, although, since animals are routinely cloned, human cloning may be
inevitable.
Related discussion questions:
 What health concerns are associated with cloning?
 What ethical concerns are associated with cloning humans?
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


Do you think Congress should impose a ban on human cloning? Why or why
not?
Do you think that human tissue might be cloned for medical purposes? Why or
why not?
What religious implications are raised by a discussion of human cloning?
 Video 2e. Twins Separated at Birth
Time: 5:52
This segment presents an engaging interview broadcast on “Good Morning America”
(October 5, 2007) with two adult women who are identical twins separated at birth. The
twins were given up for adoption at birth (in 1968) by their mother, who suffered from
mental illness, and were placed in separate homes as part of a twin study to determine
the relative influence of nature versus nurture. Neither knew she had a twin sister until
they were reunited as adults. Their story, written into the book, “Identical Strangers: A
Memoir of Twins Separated and Reunited,” tells the story of Elyse and Paula, who have
discovered amazing coincidences in their lives. The video segment itself does not
discuss ethical issues suggested by the twin study, but the interview provides an
opportunity to raise ethical concerns associated with some types of psychological
research. This segment also could be used to cue the discussion of the relative
contribution of genes and environment to human development across the lifespan.
Related discussion questions:
 Why were these twins given up for adoption? Do you think that the reason they
were given up might have contributed to their separation and their placement as
participants in this study?
 When, how, and why were the twins reunited?
 What similarities have the twins experienced throughout their lives? Do you think
these similar preferences and experiences are coincidences, or are the result of
genetic programming?
 Do you think this study was ethically performed? Why or why not?
 What ethical standards does this study call into question?
 Why would research investigating the placement of identical twins in separate
homes be of special interest to psychologists interested in “nature versus
nurture” questions?
 Video 2f. Little Albert’s Conditioned Fear Response
Time: 0:51
This historical footage shows the basic paradigm used to classically condition a fear
response in a baby named Albert. The research depicted was published as the “little
Albert” study by Watson and Raynor in 1920, and is briefly described in a box in
Chapter 1.
Related discussion questions:
 In the ‘little Albert” study, what was the conditioned stimulus? The conditioned
response?
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


What is meant by “generalization” of a fear response? How was this
demonstrated in the “little Albert” study?
Can you suggest a case of a phobia that likely was the result of classical
conditioning?
Can you suggest a positive emotional response that was the result of classical
conditioning?
Supplemental Readings: Current Research
 Article 2a.
Amso, D., Casey, B. J. (2006). Beyond What Develops When. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 15, 24-29.
One major contribution of neuroscience to understanding cognitive development
has been in demonstrating that biology is not destiny that is, demonstrating the
remarkable role of experience in shaping the mind, brain, and body. Only rarely
has neuroscience provided wholly new insights into cognitive development, but
often it has provided evidence of mechanisms by which observations of
developmental psychologists could be explained. Behavioral findings have often
remained controversial until an underlying biological mechanism for them was
offered. Neuroscience has demonstrated promise for detecting cognitive problems
before they are behaviorally observable and, hence, promise for early intervention.
In this article, we discuss examples drawn from imitation and mirror neurons,
phenylketonuria (PKU) and prefrontal dopamine, maternal touch and stress
reactivity, and nongenetic (behavioral) intergenerational transmission of biological
characteristic.
 Article 2b.
Bellugi, U., Doyle, T. F., Järvinen-Pasley, A., Korenberg, J. R., Reilly, J., Reiss, A. L.
(2007). Affect, Social Behavior, and the Brain in Williams Syndrome. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 99-104.
Williams syndrome (WS) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by intellectual
impairment and a distinctive physical and neuropsychological profile. Relative to
their level of intellectual functioning, individuals with WS exhibit strengths in
language and face recognition, with deficits in visual-spatial cognition. A
heightened appetitive drive toward social interaction is a strong behavioral feature.
Relative to other neurodevelopmental disorders, WS has a clearly defined genetic
basis, together with a consistent neurocognitive profile of strengths and deficits.
Thus, this disorder offers unique opportunities for elucidating gene-brain-behavior
relationships. We focus on manifestations of the unusual social profile in WS, by
examining data within and across levels of cognition, brain, and molecular
genetics.
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 Article 2c.
Widaman, K. F. (2009). Phenylketonuria in Children and Mothers: Genes,
Environments, Behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 48-52.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inborn metabolic error in which metabolism of
phenylalanine into tyrosine is disrupted. If the diet of an infant with PKU is not
restricted, blood phenylalanine levels are elevated, leading to irremediable brain
damage and severe mental retardation. Children with PKU who are placed early
and continuously on a low-phenylalanine diet develop normal levels of intelligence,
and brain damage is largely prevented. However, if the diet of a mother with PKU
is unrestricted during her pregnancy, high phenylalanine levels in her blood can
cross the placental barrier and damage the developing fetus in multiple ways.
These results demonstrate how genes and environmental factors combine to
create prenatal environments that can have profound effects on the growth and
development of offspring during infancy and childhood.
38
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Handout 2-1
Interview on Genetic Counseling
Select 3 people you know and ask them the following questions. Be sure to describe
each person interviewed as follows:
Sex ____
Age ____
Education (highest level completed) _____________
Occupation ______________________
______________________________________________________________________
__
1. Do you think everyone should be required to have genetic counseling before having
a baby? Why or why not?
2. If genetic counseling indicates that a couple has a chance of having a baby with a
genetic disorder, should be the couple be allowed to have a baby? Why or why not?
3. If a couple has a baby after being warned that they have a 25% or greater chance of
having a child with a serious genetic disorder, should they be able to use public health
services for the child? Why or why not?
4. Do you think that health insurance companies and life insurance companies should
be allowed to treat individuals with high probability of developing a genetic disorder
differently than those without such a chance, such as charging them more for coverage
or dropping them altogether as clients? Why or why not?
5. Do you believe that an individual’s genetic profile should be off-limits to companies?
Should it be off-limits to the government? Why or why not?
39
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