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DELLIS Coline Lycée Joliot-Curie 02500 HIRSON A cross-cultural study of global warming representation and risks about natural disasters October 20 1 Summary Thanks………………………………………………………………………….p.3 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….p.4 I- Different kinds of disasters……………………………………………………p.5 II- Questions about climate………………………………………………………p.17 III- Generalities…………………………………………………………………..p.22 IV- A comparative study…………………………………………………………p.23 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...p.26 References…………………………………………………………………………p.27 Appendix (questionnaire)………………………………………………………….p.28 2 Thanks First, I would like to thank Mr. DAUBISSE Alexandre and Mr. ABRAHAM Stany, who were my teachers and proposed me to undertake this project. I also wanted to thank Miss SCHARR Alexandra who helped me with my application form. Of course, I also thank my family, who let me go in Oklahoma, so far from my Thiérache; and who supported and helped me. Then I would like to thank Mr. SIMMONDS Philip who organized this study visit. After, I wanted to thank Mrs BOUICHOU Agnès, who accompanied us in Oklahoma, and the HARDING-DEARMOND family, who hosted and took very good care of me. I also wanted to thank Mr. MAHLER Matt, who received me and patiently answered my questions; and all the persons who filled my questionnaire. At last, to her energy, and all she organized for us, I really want to thank Mrs. ROBILLARD Elise, without whom the stay could not have been as pleasant and busy. 3 Introduction: I undertook this project because I think about my future, and I am interested in what nature can do. I hoped to understand and discover how natural disasters, possibly intensified by climate change, affect Oklahoma, as compared to France. Also, it was very interesting for me to study meteorology in another country because the climate is changing all over the world and this is starting to affect the weather. Oklahoma, with its plains and mountains, has not only many climates, but also different important climatic disasters, such as tornadoes, hurricanes, hailstorms, droughts, etc. However in France, we have only floods and some windstorms. Besides, people of those two countries possess many differences because of their culture. For instance, some think that global warming takes a role in natural disasters, and some think it is normal and a part of a natural cycle. I liked to learn more about it. Postcard sold into the Historical Center in Oklahoma 4 I- Different kind of disasters… a) In Oklahoma “Oklahomans have proven they can handle most anything Mother Nature can dish out: tornadoes, wildfires, ice storms, flooding. Been there, done that. Residents of one town can now add earthquakes to the list.” Quote from NewOn6.com “If you don’t like the weather in Oklahoma, wait a minute!” Will Rogers Roger’s quote is in many ways true. Oklahoma’s weather can change quickly, and for this reason, Oklahoma has become the focal point regarding weather forecasting. -Hurricanes A hurricane is a tropical cyclone. It is also called typhoon, tropical storm, or simply cyclone. A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a large low-pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and heavy rain. Tropical cyclones out at sea cause large waves, heavy rain, and high winds. Sixteen hurricanes “hit” Oklahoma, but they were not deadly because Oklahoma is too far from the sea and the cost, so Oklahoma only suffered heavy rains and big floods. -Hail storms Hail storms are just large hails which fall from the sky, for a period which can vary from minutes to hours. Hailstones range in size from pea to small melon. When I was in Oklahoma, I saw a hail storm. It was on October 23rd just before the football game between Oklahoma University and Texas Tech began: the game was delayed an hour. -Droughts Droughts are caused by a depletion of precipitation over time. It can cause fires so droughts can be very dangerous for the population and for the fauna and the flora. 5 During our trip, we were in a drought: it had no rain for a week, and during two weeks we had only a hail storm and it rained once. Here, there are Turner Falls in Davis, almost dry when we saw them in October, while there are usually big waterfalls with a lot of water. -A special storm: the Dust Bowl Dust bowl is a dust storm, due to the drought. From 1930 to 1936, every state but Maine and Vermont suffered from an intense drought. The drought caused small dust storms to blow across the Oklahoma plains. Years of little rain and unwise farming practices led to the dust storms that would plague portions of the state for the remainder of the decade. Dust and sand blew so thickly that hens would roost at noon, lights had to be lit throughout the day, and people could lose their way in the darkness. At the drought continued, the heat became almost unbearable as the state set records for the longest period without rain. Oklahoma went over 80 days with 100°F, including a high of 116. By 1934, all seventy-seven counties were proclaimed emergency areas because of the drought conditions. The earlier sand blows were nothing compared to the black blizzard that struck the Panhandle on April 14, 1935, which was referred to as “Black Sunday”. Dust storms closed schools and roads, dried up ponds, and because of “dust pneumonia” that caused lung disorders, hundreds of humans and animals died. Although the dust bowl was confined to three counties in the Panhandle, it affected the 6 entire state. The Dust Bowl devastated more counties in Texas, New Mexico, Colorado and Kansas than in Oklahoma. Popular perception incorrectly tied the Dust Bowl only to Oklahoma. “Dust blows in Guymon, Oklahoma, on March 15, 1936” “Dust storm in Hooker, Oklahoma Panhandle, 1937” Those pictures were taken in the Historical Center in Oklahoma -Wild fires When there are drought conditions, it makes easier for wild fires to start end to move. So fires destroy forest and also houses, so it is really dangerous for flora, fauna and mostly people. 7 Here, there are on the left no vegetation anymore and trees destroyed by the fire. On the right, there are green grass, vegetation and trees. -Earthquakes In Oklahoma, earthquakes are extraordinary. However, the state was hit by its largest earthquake on record, a 5.6-magnitude temblor that struck 71km east of Oklahoma City, only a week after we came back in France (November, 5th). Fortunately, no one was hurt, although 14 homes were damaged, and the state was shaken by a number of moderate aftershocks. Scientists say there’s some evidence that “fracking” may induce minor tremors. “Fracking” means produce small fractures in the earth miles beneath the surface with explosives in order to tap trapped oil and gas deposits. It is a common practice in Oklahoma. When we went to Barbara Thompson’s reception, (Monday, 17th October), I talked with a lady. She told me that she knew earthquakes because on May 2010, a little one rattled her house and cracked her bay window. When we ate in a restaurant in Meers, we saw a seismograph. It is a device that records seismic waves generated by earthquakes. “The Meers Observatory was established in 1985 to monitor seismic activity along the recently discovered Meers Fault and activity in the Southwest quadrant of Oklahoma. The Meers Fault is the only young, surface-breaking fault east of the Rocky Mountains. The fault spans 26 kilometers in a northwest to southeast direction and is 26-30 meters wide. The fault is exposed at the surface, extending from Saddle Mountain to Richard Spur, and is visible from the Meers-Porter Hill Road on the west and south-facing hillslopes of the ridgeline immediately west of the Stony Point School. The Meers Store is located 3.2 kilometers south of the sault. Research Geologists have estimated that the most recent movement of the Meers Fault to have occurred between 500-2,000 years ago. Additionally, researchers have estimated that the maximum magnitude of an earthquake along the Meers Fault, historically or in the future, could range between 6.5-7.5 on the Richter Scale. The seismograph seismometer is positioned on granite bedrock in a mineshaft found several thousand feet from the Meers Store. This seismograph unit is considered one of the most seismically sensitive in the country, recording many earthquakes across the world and underground nuclear weapon tests (some of which were in violation of treaties). The seismogram that you see here is changed daily and seismograph clock is recalibrated with Universal Time periodically. The seismograph unit is operational year round except for periods following a lightning strike.” 8 . Seismograph in the Meers restaurant - Snow storm The probability of heavy snow in Oklahoma increases gradually through fall and early winter to a peak in January, then remains high through March before dropping sharply in April. The panhandle and northwest counties are the most likely areas to receive heavy snow, averaging 1 to 2 4-inch or greater snow events per year, and one 8-inch event every 1 to 2 years. Counties along the Red River in southern Oklahoma are least likely to experience heavy snowfall, but still can expect one 4-inch or greater snowfall on average every 3 to 4 years. Snowfalls of 8 inches or more occur on average in these areas only about once every two decades. -Floods Floods are the most common and widespread of all natural disasters. Floods can be slow or fast rising and generally develop over a period of days. Flash floods usually result from intense storms dropping large amounts of rain within a brief period. Flash floods occur with little or no warning and can reach full peak in only a few minutes. 9 Flooding at Turner Falls 11/08/11 -Tornadoes Tornados can occur anywhere in the world, but the majority of tornados occur in the United States; Tornados also can occur during any month of the year, but are most common in the spring when conditions for the formation of severe storms and tornados are the most common. Oklahoma sits in the region of the country known as “Tornado alley”. This area includes portions of Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas, where the frequency of tornados is higher than anywhere else in the world. Pictures of maps I took in a book about Oklahoma 10 Oklahoma lies at the heart of the most tornado-prone region in the world. On average, 60 tornadoes are observed in the state each year. Annual totals are quite variable, ranging from as few as 17 (in 1988) to as many as 145 (in 1999). Nearly three-quarters of Oklahoma’s tornadoes occur during the April-June “storm season”, with the single month of May accounting for one-third of the annual total. Most tornadoes are weak and do little damage. Others strike in unpopulated areas and are not much noticed. Tornadoes are spawned by severe thunderstorms that can develop during any season or any time of day, although conditions favorable for their development are present most frequently in springtime, during late afternoon through early evening. Severe thunderstorms and the tornadoes they produce usually move from southwest to northeast. Tornadoes sometimes form singly but at other times will be part of a larger ensemble. Tornado development is often associated with isolated, large “supercell” thunderstorms, but complexes of thunderstorms can also produce significant tornadoes. An extremely violent tornado ripped across the southern end of the Oklahoma City metropolitan area on May 3, 1999. Despite the population density of the affected area, timely warnings combined with effective citizen response held fatalities O an amazingly low, though still tragic, 40. Tornado forecasting, detection and warning systems (many of them developed in Oklahoma, and all of them developed after 1947) provided a margin of safety that, while not completely preventing tragedy, was able to reduce it significantly. In 1999, a huge tornado hit Westmoore High School, which was our hosting school. Hundreds of cars, crumpled like a child’s discarded toy, littered the parking lot across from the school. About 500 people were at the school attending an awards ceremony. Everyone survived. Here, there is an aerial picture taken after the passing of the tornado in 1999. At the fingertip, it is Westmoore High School. 11 Those pictures were taken at Westmoore High School after the tornado in 1999 by a teacher 12 Tornado formation A tornado begins in a severe thunderstorm called a supercell. A supercell can last longer than a regular thunderstorm. The same property that keeps the storm going also produces most tornadoes. The wind coming into the storm starts to swirl and forms a funnel. The air in the funnel spins faster and faster and creates a very low pressure area which sucks more air (and possibly objects) into it. The severe thunderstorms which produce tornadoes form where cold dry polar air meets warm moist tropical air. 13 A very important part in the Oklahoma’s culture Tornadoes are present in people's minds, even if they do not fear them because they are accustomed. Indeed, in each building, there is an alarm and sometimes a special room for when a tornado is coming. For example, in a government building of Oklahoma: once, a tornado was coming. The alarm sounded, and then all the employees had to take refuge in a special room. However, an Indian woman refused to go to this room, because her tribe venerated the wind, and it would be abnormal for her to fear a tornado. So she remained at her place. Here, a painting on the wall in a corridor into one of the government building Here, a painting by Wilson Hurley into the Capitol b) In France -Avalanche An avalanche is any amount of snow sliding down a mountainside. Every winter, there are avalanches, less or more significant, and sometimes deadly. Indeed, some of the avalanches are triggered by skiers who do off-piste, in the Alps or in the Pyrenees. 14 -Heat waves A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather (which may be accompanied by high humidity). France does not commonly have very hot summers, particularly in the northern areas. Because of the usually relatively mild summers, most people did not know how to react to very high temperatures (for instance, with respect to rehydration), and most single-family homes and residential facilities built in the last 50 years were not equipped with air conditioning. Furthermore, while there were contingency plans for a variety of natural and man-made catastrophes, high temperatures had never been considered a major hazard. So heat waves like in 2003 are very deadly, mostly for old people because they are alone and unaware about the risks. -Wildfires A wildfire is any uncontrolled fire in combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area. Heat waves, droughts, cyclical climate changes and regional weather patterns such as high-pressure ridges can increase the risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically. In South of France (Marseille, Corsica etc.), there are wildfires during the summer, and some of them are really dangerous because they destroyed kilometers of vegetation, threatening homes and forcing some areas to be evacuated. -Earthquakes The seismic activity in France Metropolitan is not as important as in other world areas. However, there are regularly some more or less little earthquakes near the Mediterranean Sea or in Alsace. Those earthquakes are not deadly, they only shake houses. -Storms A storm is characterized by fast winds and heavy rainfall. It may be accompanied by thunderstorms and hail. The storms are fairly common in France (2 per year). Xynthia storm is a major depression which hit several European countries between February 26 and March 1, 2010, causing a violent windstorm. The system, from the subtropical regions hit France (Aquitaine, Poitou-Charentes, Pays de la Loire, Brittany and Normandy). Its passage has killed 59 people and extensive damage to property. This storm caused nearly two billion euros in damages. The combination of winds and high tides resulted in a storm surge that caused extensive flooding in some coastal areas, mainly in the Charente-Maritime, Vendée and in the Cotes d'Armor. 15 The storm "Joachim" is a depression formed 15 December 2011 and December 18, 2011 dissipated. Wind gusts up to 155km / h were recorded. This storm resulted in a disruption of the rail network SNCF in some areas. Falling trees and blocked several railway lines side, as well as roads where traffic was stopped. This storm was less devastating than the storm Xynthia. -Floods When it rains too much, sometimes there are floods of varying severity. For the most serious, water goes onto roads and into houses, destroying houses and everything else on their path. It is what it happened in January 2011, in Picardie. More precisely, Hirson and the whole region had major flooding on the 6th January 2011. Indeed, it snowed a lot, and a week after the temperature was as warm as spring. The river rose more than 4 meters, and water quickly overflowed onto the roads and entered in more than 350 houses and shops. During the night, residents were evacuated. Most of the streets and city roads were impassable Then, the boarding of my high school was requisitioned to house the victims for the weekend. Pictures of the flood in Hirson (January 2011) Also, because of big thunderstorms and rains, the South of France was touched by huge floods (e.g. Marseille) in November 2011. The rivers (Rhône) and even the Mediterranean Sea overflowed towns. The human toll from the weather, which affected the south for nearly a week, is five dead. More than 1,000 homes were evacuated, nearly 11,500 homes were without power and 1,500 people were trapped in trains. Floods are the disasters related to water the most common in the Mediterranean. Even if some disasters are the same in France and in Oklahoma, all of them are stronger in Oklahoma. 16 II- Questions about climate a) American point of view I interviewed Matt Mahler. He is a TV meteorologist and works in the News 9 weather team. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in meteorology with a minor in mathematics from the University of Oklahoma. Before working in News 9 weather team, he moved to Wichita Falls, Texas in November of 2006, and worked as the weekday morning meteorologist at NBC (National Broadcasting Company) affiliate KFDX (the NBC affiliated television station) for three years. Matt Mahler and I 17 I interviewed him and I asked him some questions. “Would you say that climate changes are myth or fact? “ “Climate always changed, then I prefer the term climate change because that’s what climate is: it’s changing. So, for me, when I see the term climate change, I look at the facts, I mean, I don’t take it of conjuncture. I make sure that I know the actual data, make sure the data I’m looking at is solid. The data we’re looking have recently showing that. Well, during past 100 years, it showed ups and downs. I mean, we’ve had floods, we’ve had bad springs, we’ve had droughts, we’ve had bad winters. Climate changes, specifically over the Pacific Ocean, where el Niño affects our weather. Data shows currents go through cycles. So I believe that Climate change is true, but I also believe it’s something that we are going to continue to go through: we’ll see times a lot hotter that it should be and times a lot colder than it should be. Climate changes: it’s happening, but I don’t think it is out of control, It is just something we’re going to see: changes.” “For you, what are the Main reasons of global warming? “ “Oh, well, obviously, population increasing on the Earth: more people using things that obviously are going to cause changes. It’s not as extreme as a lot of people might lead you to believe. I’m not saying it’s not true, I say it’s not to the point where we need to start panicking and worrying. I’m all for saving environment, and doing your part. But I don’t think that global warming is something that is going out of control, I don’t believe that’s true at all. Temperatures will warm, temperatures will cool, climate is changing, has changed that’s normal. I’ve the opinion that our climate is going to change so much, and over the past Over many hundred of years the temp may just going up a little bit then we see times where for several years where the temp stay down. Man made thing, it’s something we’re doing that we to pull back on the stuffs we’re doing such as CO2 Global warming argument to me, I don't get involved with it, because it’s not something that I believe to be 100% true. So, you can ask, you will get 100 different opinions if you ask 100 people on this. That’s the only thing about it. And me, and Mike and Garry, Jane, and Nick, we all have kind of the same viewpoint. We just believe that global warming is not, again, it’s not as panicky, it’s not as extreme as a lot of people might lead you guys to believe. Whether or not it’ true, I mean, that’s what the data are telling you. Because if you look at the data over years -- we’ve been taking records over many years-- you can find out global warming. But for me, any cause would just be… On the thought that come on the Top of my head, I’d pick the fact that global population continues to increase. We use more stuffs, that obviously affect the entire world, but in terms of something doing the global temperatures spiking as badly as… I think it’s not a real issue. 18 In a lot of ways, our weather depends on, is impacted by, like I said, el Niño, which is warming the pacific waters. So, el Niño is just the cooling of pacific waters. Waters are cooler than they’ve been by the past 20 or 30 years. When it’s cooler than normal, we have wetter winters, we have cooler winter (or sometimes colder winters), there are usually more droughts – we have constant precipitations, so. Spring can be affected the same way. We can have more thunderstorms, but not as intense. Thunderstorms that come through can become huge and really really big. Believe it or not, but the sea surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean affects storm systems that come in. How it starts in the Pacific Ocean makes a big difference.” “Why natural disasters are stronger in USA than in France? I mean, in USA you have tornadoes, hailstorms, droughts, hurricanes whereas in France, we have only big floods and snowstorm? “ “I’m trying to figure out what position on the earth as France, in terms of latitude and longitude; I think you guys are further north than US. USA are between Mexico, that provides dry warm air, and Canada, that provides cold air. The clash of these huge hot or cold air masses creates storms and thunderstorms. The middle of USA, what is called Tornado alley, is a perfect place for thunderstorms. So we can explain the fact that we have intense storms and tornadoes by the very specific location of USA. So Oklahoma, but not only: Texas, Kansas, etc., is the perfect spot for huge meteorological events. As you are further north, you don’t have a place like Gulf of Mexico that gives you a constant stream of moisture and warmer air. Air systems for you are oceanic and come from north England. Those cold air systems cause big snowstorms in England. But in Europe, your air systems, cold and warm are less clashing, at least in France. I think that’s why your meteorological phenomena are less intense.” “When a tornado is incoming, what does the population have to do to be safety?” “Tornado questions are my favorite! Every spring, people know that tornadoes can occur at any moment. For example, last May 24th, we had what we call a « Massive Super-cell ». 3 to 5 days before, we can predict a tornado is coming, and send a « watch-out » message to the population. We inform them as precisely as possible. We do not want to make people crazy about that In case of “tornado warnings”, people know what to do. For instance, each year in class, students are reminded with what to do/not do in case of tornado. People generally have a storm shelter in their house, with no windows. In case of alert, they just need to make sure that their shelter is ok.” 19 I visited the News 9 weather station. This is the News 9 weather station. At the top of the red and white kind of tower, there is a camera. With this camera, the meteorologist can see Oklahoma City and around, so if a tornado, a fire or something of the sort would be coming, the meteorologist would be notified really quickly and then they could warn the public and take the necessary security measures Into the station, they have many computers. Each computer is dedicated to a defined task and each computer is double: one to watch at every time their channel, one to see Oklahoma City, one to observe the wind variations, the temperatures etc. On the TV studio, where emissions are turned, they have also many computers, but in order to control the lights, the orientation of the cameras etc. He showed me how he presents the weather in front of a green screen. 20 b) French point of view Serge Planton, head of the Climatic Research Unit at the Research Centre of Meteo-France He answered to some questions that people usually asks to him. I summarized and translated his answers. Are human beings responsible of global warming? He thinks most of the climate changes are attributable to human activity. He said they noticed there is an increase in greenhouse gas emissions and temperature rise: since 15 years, and thanks to sophisticated machinery, scientists have made the connection. What are the other factors of climate change? For him, there are two factors of natural origin: solar activity (that means the distance between the Earth and the Sun) and volcanism but human activities dominate and are more important. Which climate changes can we expect? The temperature will rise. It is thought that warming will be higher in the twenty first century (between 1.1 and 6.4 ° C) than it was in the twentieth century (0.6 ° C). What will be the consequences of those changes? Sea levels will rise (from 20 to 60 cm). In addition, there will be the partial melting of polar ice caps and the melting of the ice. The oceans and also terrestrial ecosystems (forests) will be less effective to fix some of the carbon emitted by human activities, which will amplify the effect of global warming. In addition, the melting of permafrost will cause an increase of methane emissions, and thus an increase of global warming. What climate in France? He said the simulations provide a very clear increase in the number of summer heat waves in France. The days of extreme heat (maximum temperature above 35 ° C) should become much more frequent at the end of this century. 21 III- Generalities - Some natural factors are likely to vary the temperature at the surface of the Earth: - The internal climate variability. It is particularly due to the interactions of the various components of the climate system (atmosphere, oceans, ice, vegetation ...). - Solar radiation arriving on the Earth. It depends on the Earth's orbit, on changes in the inclination of the polar axis and on the solar activity. - The volcanic activity. Certain gases emitted into the atmosphere by volcanic eruptions become particles that absorb a part of the solar radiation. But these variations are not sufficient to explain the observed warming. Indeed, the comparison between observations and climate simulations can assign most of the global warming of the last 50 years to greenhouse gas emissions of human origin. - Additional Greenhouse gas emissions of human origin? The study of the chemical composition of the atmosphere shows that the content of certain greenhouse gas emissions increased rapidly since the mid-nineteenth century. For example, the concentration of carbon dioxide increased from 280 ppmv (parts per million volume) at the beginning of the industrial era to about 380 ppmv in 2005. Industrialization has led our society to massive discharges of these gases. The production of carbon dioxide exceeds the absorptive capacity of nature. Distributed over the entire planet, it enhances the natural greenhouse effect and contributes to gradually warm the Earth's climate. -To an increase of extreme events? Scientists predict a small increase in heavy rainfall in mid and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere in the winter, an increase in heat waves and fewer cold snaps. But for other extreme events such as cyclones, no trend emerged in great details. Statistical studies conducted over the last fifty years don’t show a clear trend to increase for tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic, and for storms in France. The latest projections seem to show, not an increase in the number of hurricanes, but an increased activity of the most violent hurricanes in the North Atlantic. The state of research does not allow the state of an increase in the intensity and the overall number of storms, thunderstorms or hail in France. 22 IV- A comparative study Cross-cultural study of global warming representation We investigated the representation of American people and French people about global warming. Given the fact that both countries are regularly victims of natural disasters floods in the Aisne and storms in Oklaoma, we thought it could be interesting to compare perception of climate changes for these two populations. For that, we constructed a questionnaire both in English and in French. The questionnaire was divided in 3 sections and included a total of 24 items. In most of the cases, answers were collected on 7-points scales. The complete questionnaire is provided in appendix p.27. The first of the three sections evaluated the global representation of global warming, its causes and its evolution. It included questions such as “Do you think that global climate changes are myth or facts” or “Please list the Top 5 things that you can think of that could cause global climate change?” The second section aimed to assess people’s concern about the effects of global warming with questions such as “Are you concerned by increase in storms” or “Are you concerned by increase Sea-level rise?” Finally, in the last section, we measured the level of agreement of people with different statements associated with global warming. Items were for instance: “Harm to the environment is justified if it brings an economic benefit” or “We can trust the government to protect the environment” A total of 22 persons responded to our questionnaire: 12 respondents were American and the remaining 10 were French. They were mainly adults (mean ageFR = 36 and mean ageUS = 42). In the next part of the report, we will try to summarize the results of this survey, stressing on differences vs similarities between French and American answers. Concerning data analysis, means were chosen as indicator for questions implying quantitative answers. Differences in means were statistically tested using a Student t-test. Classification and frequencies were used for the open-ended questions. Part I: Global representation of global warming, its causes and its evolution Globally, few differences appeared between French and American people in this section. Both French and American people think that climate changes are facts rather than myths (MFR = 5,80 and MUS = 4,92). They are also equally and rather moderately concerned about the possibility of global climate changes (MFR = 4,30 and MUS = 4,70). Both American and French people largely declared being aware of scientific evidence of global climate change (%FR = 80% and %US = 83%). Concerning the Top 5 lists provided in Tables A and B, answers are also globally similar. Small exceptions appear concerning the origin of climate changes. Even if both American and French people think pollution and greenhouse gas are the most responsible, the opinions are quite different about the other factors. The Oklahoma people’s point of view is more based on the Nature and how human beings destroy it, with element such as the deforestation or using non-renewable energies as petrol; whereas French are more concerning by the industrial overproduction. 23 Besides, American and French people think that the four more polluting countries are respectively China, USA, India, Russia; and USA, China, India, Russia but the percentages are different. Also, the opinions are different concerning the other country considerate as polluting: 50%FR= Japan, vs 20%US= Mexico and Germany France Polluting energy and pollution: 58.3% Greenhouse gas: 50.0% Overproduction and intensive stockbreeding: 33.3% Disrespectful industries: 25.0% Rise of population: 16.7% Oklahoma Pollution: 70.0% Greenhouse gas: 70.0% Burning fossil fuels: 40.0% Cut down too many trees: 30.0% Reduction of the ozone layer: 20.0% Table A: The five main things which can occur climate changes France: USA China India Russia Japan 83.3% 75.0% 75.0% 58.3% 50.0% Oklahoma: China USA India Russia Mexico Germany 90.0% 80.0% 70.0% 60.0% 20.0% 20.0% Table B: The five main countries responsible of climate changes American and French indicated comparable estimations concerning the probability (in %) that human actions already have changed the climate (M%FR = 56,10 and M%US = 57,33). They also think that human actions will probably not change climate in a positive way (M%FR = 20,80 and M%US = 37,08) and will probably change things in a negative way (M%FR = 64,50 and MUS% = 42,58). Finally, a difference appeared concerning the fact that people should take precautionary measures to prevent climate changes. If everybody agreed on the necessity of taking precautionary measures, French people are even more incline than American people to that kind of measures (MFR = 6,80 and MUS = 6,00). Part II: concern about the effects of global warming No significant differences appeared concerning levels of concern about sea-rise (MFR = 4,90 and MUS = 4,25) and changes in weather patterns (MFR = 5,30 and MUS = 4,83). On the contrary, French people systematically declared being significantly more concerned than American people about storms frequency (MFR = 5,60 and MUS = 4,60), floods frequency (MFR = 5,60 and MUS = 4,42) and species loss (MFR = 6,10 and MUS = 4,33). 24 In sum, American people appeared to be globally less concerned than French people, whatever was the topic of concern assessed. Indeed, American people’s means are relatively close of the middle of the 7 points scale (ranging from 4,22 to 4,83) whereas French people’s means are rather on the right of the scale (ranging from 4,90 to 6,10). Part III: agreement of people with different statements associated with global warming In this last part of the questionnaire, we asked participants to give us their level of agreement with different statements related to global warming and particularly with possible “human” justifications or reasons for global warming, importance of Nature, and actions at different levels of the society. First, Nature clearly appeared to be important for all the people of our sample. Thus respondents indicated that it is very important to treat Nature respectfully (MFR = 6,30 and MUS = 5,25) as well as to preserve environment for future generations (MFR = 6,10 and MUS = 6,25). Then, concerning the “human justifications”, participants disagreed or strongly disagreed with the reasons proposed. No significant difference yielded from the analyses on the statements “harm to the environment is justified if it brings an economic benefit” and (MFR = 1,80 and MUS = 2,67) and “It is alright to sacrifice other species in order to satisfy human needs” (MFR = 2,40 and MUS = 2,67). On the statement “Nature is wild and should be tamed to serve mankind”. While the whole population disagreed with the statement, American people scored extremely than French people (MFR = 3,30 and MUS = 2,17). Finally, nor American nor French thought they could trust their government (MFR = 1,90 and MUS = 2,17) or their businesses (MFR = 1,60 and MUS = 1,75) to protect the Environment. If every individual agreed on the fact that he/she has a role to play through his/her actions (MFR = 6,90 and MUS = 6,25), when American disagreed, French people displayed a large agreement with the fact that individual choices about environment will provide adequate environment protection (MFR = 5,40 and MUS = 2,92). 25 Conclusion The questionnaire was designed to assess the representation of American people and French people about global warming. It appeared that representations of global warming, its causes and its evolution are globally the same: global warming is considered as a fact proved by scientific evidence. There is also a large agreement on the reasons that could explain global warming, as well as on the “who” and “why”. If the level of concern associated is rather moderate, French people tend to appear more pessimistic than American concerning the future. If everybody agreed on the necessity of taking precautionary measures, French people are more incline to that kind of measures. Measures of specific concerns about the effects of global warming indicated that American people are globally less concerned than French people, whatever was the topic of concern assessed. We could have expected differences on the items measuring typical French vs American natural disorder (i.e., floods vs storms), but results indicated no concern differences on those dimensions. Finally, levels of agreement of people with the statements related to possible “human” justifications for global warming, importance of Nature, and actions at different levels of the society are globally equivalent. A unique difference of point of view appeared on the fact that individual choices about environment would provide adequate environment protection. When French agreed on that point, American disagreed. In guise of conclusion, we found that the fact that both countries are regularly victims of different natural disasters (floods in the Aisne and storms in Oklahoma) seems to have no impact on the perception of climate changes for these two populations. Cultural differences also appeared to be minimal. If it is clearly positive to notice that American and French are aware of the global warming problems, associated levels of concern, individual willingness to act and faith in politics and industries to improve things are not the most auspicious for the future… 26 References http://ecocentric.blogs.time.com/ http://www.srh.noaa.gov/ http://articles.cnn.com/ http://www.koco.com/ http://www.windows2universe.org/ http://en.wikipedia.org/ http://france.meteofrance.com/ http://temoins.bfmtv.com/ http://www.metrofrance.com/ -Historical center in Oklahoma City -Books I read in Westmoore High School library 27 Schoolproject:Climatechanges‐USversion‐ This survey is about global climate changes. Please answer all the questions below by indicating what corresponds the best to what you think. * Required Do you think that global climate changes are myth or facts? * 1 Myth 2 3 4 5 6 7 Facts How concerned are you about the possibility of global climate changes? * 1 Not concerned at all 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extremely concerned Are you aware of any scientific evidence of global climate change? * Yes No Please list the Top 5 things that you can think of that could cause global climate change. * List the top 5 countries you believe could contribute to global climate change. * In your mind, what is the probability that human actions have already changed global climate? * Please indicate the percentage corresponding the best to what you think 28 In your mind, what are the chances that human actions, in the future, will change global climate in a positive way? * Please indicate the percentage corresponding the best to what you think In your mind, what are the chances that human actions, in the future, will change global climate in a negative way? * Please indicate the percentage corresponding the best to what you think Should people be taking precautionary measures to prevent global climate change caused by human actions? * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not at all Absolutely Who should be preventing global climate change? * UNO The government of my country Industries and enterprises Every citizen Scientists have given us this list of possible effects if global warming occurs. For each of these effects, indicate your level of concern by using the scale Sea-Level Rise * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extremely concerned Not concerned at all Changes in weather patterns (e.g., seasons) * 1 2 3 4 5 Not concerned at all 6 7 Extremely concerned Increase in storms * 29 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not concerned at all Extremely concerned Increase in floods * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not concerned at all Extremely concerned Species loss * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not concerned at all Extremely concerned For each of the following statements, fill in the response that best represents your understanding. Harm to the environment is justified if it brings an economic benefit * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly disagree Strongly agree There is nothing I can do to change environmental conditions * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly disagree Strongly agree It is important to preserve the environment for future generations * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly disagree Strongly agree Nature is divine, and should be treated respectfully * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly disagree Strongly agree It is all right to sacrifice other species in order to satisfy human needs * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly disagree Strongly agree We can trust the government to protect the environment * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly disagree Strongly agree 30 We can trust businesses to make the right decisions to protect the environment * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly disagree Strongly agree Who are you? Gender Male Female Age Occupation 31