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CHAPTER 4: CELLULAR METABOLISM BIO 137 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY I MARY CATHERINE FLATH, Ph.D. CHAPTER 4 TOPICS DIVISIONS OF METABOLISM ENZYMES ATP CELLULAR RESPIRATION DNA REPLICATION PROTEIN SYNTHESIS MUTATIONS Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Cellular Metabolism Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body ▪ Each reaction is catalyzed by a specific enzyme ▪ The reactions typically occur in pathways ▪ Two types of metabolic reactions Catabolism • large macromolecules (polymers) are broken down • releases energy Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Anabolism • large macromolecules (polymers) are made • requires energy 4-2 Catabolism Catabolism breaks polymers into smaller monomers. Catabolism involves destructive, digestive reactions. Energy is released when bonds between monomers are broken (i.e. Exergonic) Water is used to break bonds: Hydrolysis Examples include (follow arrows to left): ▪ Breaking a protein into amino acids ▪ Breaking DNA into nucleotides Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-5 Catabolism (follow arrows to left) Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-6 Anabolism Anabolism is the building of polymers from monomers. Anabolism involves constructive, synthesis reactions. Anabolism requires cellular energy to build bonds between monomers (Endergonic). Bonds are built through Dehydration Synthesis Examples (follow arrows to right): ▪ building a triglyceride from glycerol and fatty acids ▪ building glycogen from glucose molecules Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-3 Anabolism (follow arrows to right) Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-4 METABOLISM Define the term METABOLISM Name the two major divisions of metabolism For each division of metabolism: Write a descriptive sentence Name two synonyms for the process Explain whether bonds are being made or broken Explain how energy is involved – name that term Explain how water is involved – name that term Write a simple equation illustrating the process Name an example in human metabolism Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath METABOLISM Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions that occur within an organism Two major divisions are Building reactions – anabolism Breakdown reactions - catabolism Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath DIVISIONS OF METABOLISM Division Descriptive sentence Descriptive terms Bond formation or breaking? Energy required or released? Term? Water required or released? Term? Equation Example Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Divisions of Metabolism CATABOLISM ANABOLISM Polymers are broken down into monomers Destructive, digestive Bonds are broken Energy is released; exergonic Water is required; hydrolysis CD C + D Proteins > amino acids; Glycogen > glucoses; Nucleic acids > nucleotides Monomers are built into polymers Constructive, synthesis Bonds are formed Energy is required; endergonic Water is removed; dehydration (synthesis) A + B AB Amino acids > protein; glucoses > glycogen; glycerol + fatty acids > triglyceride Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Control of Metabolic Reactions: Enzyme Action Enzymes are biological, protein catalysts that increase the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed by the reaction. • (They lower activation energy needed to start reactions). • Enzymes are globular proteins with specific shapes • Enzymes are specific for their substrate (i.e. the substance • they act upon) • The enzyme’s active site fits with the substrate like a lock & key Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-7 Enzyme-Substrate Mechanism e d f Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Enzyme-Substrate Mechanism SUBSTRATE e END-PRODUCTS ACTIVE SITE ENZYME ENZYME-SUBSTRATE d COMPLEX f Unaltered ENZYME Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Enzyme Substrate Interaction Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Control of Metabolic Reactions: Enzyme Action The active site on the enzyme may not be exposed and a cofactor or coenzyme may be required. Cofactors are ions of metals (Fe++, Cu++, Zn++) Coenzymes are vitamins (primarily B vitamins) Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-7 Control of Metabolic Reactions: Enzyme Action Enzyme names are often derived from the substrate they act on ▪ The root of the enzyme name comes from the substrate ▪ The enzyme name typically ends in the suffix –ase ▪ Examples include: The enzyme lactase that breaks down the substrate lactose The enzyme lipase that breaks down a (substrate) lipid. The enzyme DNA Polymerase is used to build DNA from nucleotide substrates. ▪ Enzymes are unchanged by the reaction they catalyze and are recycled. ▪ Enzymes can be denatured in extreme conditions. ▪ Metabolic pathways involve several reactions in a row, each requiring a different, specific enzyme. Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-7 Control of Metabolic Reactions Metabolic pathways • series of enzyme-controlled reactions leading to formation of a product • each new substrate is the product of the previous reaction Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-8 Energy for Metabolic Reactions Energy • Energy is the ability to do work or change something. • Common forms include heat, light, sound, electricity, mechanical energy, chemical energy • Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it changes from one form to another. • All metabolic reactions involve some form of energy. Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-10 Energy for Metabolic Reactions Release of chemical energy Most metabolic processes depend on chemical energy Energy is held within the covalent bonds between atoms (as potential energy). When the bond breaks, free (kinetic) energy is released. Cellular respiration releases chemical energy from nutrients and makes it available for cellular use. Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath ATP Molecules • each ATP molecule has three parts • an adenine molecule • a ribose molecule • three phosphate molecules in a chain • third phosphate attached by high-energy bond • when the bond is broken, energy is transferred • when the bond is broken, ATP becomes ADP, •but ADP can be recycled back to ATP, if a phosphate is added back to ADP during catabolic reactions Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-12 Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath CELLULAR RESPIRATION (CR) Cellular respiration is the way in which animal cells use oxygen to release energy (ATP) from nutrients CR reactions occur in two major series of reactions (with each requiring a specific enzyme): Anaerobic Steps do not require oxygen Occur in cytoplasm Glycolysis Aerobic steps do require oxygen Occur in mitochondrion (Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and Electron transport chain [ETC]) Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath OVERVIEW OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath COENZYMES REQUIRED FOR CELLUAR REPSIRATION NADH (NIACIN) FADH2 (RIBOFLAVIN) Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath For each major series of reactions in Cellular Respiration, you should be able to: State whether the reactions are aerobic or anaerobic Locate the reactions in the cell Name starting products Name end products Including ATP Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath CELLULAR RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC REACTIONS Is oxygen required? Where do the reactions occur in the cell? Starting Products? End-Products? Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath AEROBIC REACTIONS CELLULAR RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC REACTIONS AEROBIC REACTIONS Is oxygen required? NO YES Where do the reactions occur in the cell? CYTOPLASM MITOCHONDRION Starting Products? GLUCOSE TWO PYRUVIC ACIDS End-Products? TWO PYRUVIC ACIDS 2 ATP 36 ATP Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath WATER CO2 ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS: (FERMENTATION) If oxygen is not available, pyruvic acid is fermented under anaerobic conditions: In animals, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid Accumulates and causes muscle fatigue and soreness Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS: (FERMENTATION) Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath CELLULAR RESPIRATION is the process by which animal cells use oxygen to release energy from nutrients. Anaerobic Steps (in cytoplasm) Aerobic Steps (in mitochondrion) OXYGEN Glucose 2 Pyruvic Acids H2O + CO2 Glycolysis (Citric Acid Cycle (6C) (2 x 3C) + 2 ATPElectron + 36 ATP Transport Chain) Fermentation Lactic Acid Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Regulation of Metabolic Pathways • limited number of regulatory enzymes • negative feedback whereby the end-product comes back and inhibits the first enzyme in the pathway Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-23 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS THAT REGULATE METABOLIC REACTIONS CELLS MUST HAVE THE INFORMATION FOR MAKING THESE SPECIAL PROTEINS THAT INFORMATION IS CARRIED IN THE DNA IN OUR CELLS INFORMATION IS CARRIED BY GENES ON OUR CHROMOSOMES DNA DIRECTS PROTEIN SYNTHESIS RNA ASSISTS DNA IN THAT EFFORT Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath GENETIC INFORMATION DNA HOLDS THE GENETIC INFORMATION WHICH IS INHERITED FROM PARENTS TO OFFSPRING DNA IS LOCATED IN NUCLEUS DNA INSTRUCTS CELLS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF PROTEINS PROTEINS ARE SYNTHESIZED AT RIBOSOMES (RER OR IN CYTOPLASM) THE PORTION OF A DNA MOLECULE THAT CODES FOR ONE PARTICULAR PROTEIN IS CALLED A GENE ALL OF THE DNA IN A CELL CONSTITUTES ITS GENOME HUMAN GENOME PROJECT Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath HOW DOES DNA WHICH IS CONFINED TO THE NUCLEUS, DIRECT PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AT RIBOSOMES? WITH THE HELP OF RNA NUCLEIC ACID STRUCTURE DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID DNA DNA STRUCTURE DNA IS COMPOSED OF NUCLEOTIDES EACH NUCLEOTIDE IS COMPOSED OF: SUGAR DEOXYRIBOSE PHOSPHATE GROUP NITROGEN BASE PURINE ADENINE (A) GUANINE (G) D PYRIMIDINE CYTOSINE (C) THYMINE (T) Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath DNA STRUCTURE EACH DNA STRAND IS COMPOSED OF ALTERNATING DEOXYRIBOSE SUGARS AND PHOSPHATES EACH DEOXYRIBOSE SUGAR IS LINKED TO ONE OF FOUR BASES Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath DNA STRUCTURE EACH DNA MOLECULE CONSISTS OF TWO STRANDS OF NUCLEOTIDES STRANDS ARE HELD TOGETHER BY HYDROGEN BONDS BETWEEN COMPLEMENTARY BASES A::T (2 H-bonds) G:::C (3 H-bonds) Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath DNA STRUCTURE THE DNA MOLECULE IS TWISTED INTO A DOUBLE HELIX Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath SEM of chromosomes prior to cell division Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath DNA REPLICATION DNA Replication: Occurs in the nucleus during interphase of cell cycle • DNA unwinds and hydrogen bonds break between complementary bases pairs • DNA polymerase positions DNA nucleotides with exposed bases and backbones of strands are formed • two identical DNA molecules result •Semi-conservative replication Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-30 RIBONUCLEIC ACID RNA RNA STRUCTURE RNA IS COMPOSED OF NUCLEOTIDES SUGAR IS RIBOSE BASES: A, URACIL (U) C, G R PHOSPHATE GROUP Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath RNA STRUCTURE EACH RNA STRAND IS COMPOSED OF A BACKBONE OF ALTERNATING RIBOSE SUGARS AND PHOSPHATES EACH RIBOSE IS BONDED TO A BASE RNA IN SINGLE STRANDED Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath TYPES OF RNA MESSENGER RNA (mRNA) TRANSFER RNA (tRNA) Carries code for protein to be synthesized from nucleus to ribosome Carries appropriate amino acid to ribosome to be incorporated into protein RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA) The RNA component of the ribosome (recall that a ribosome is composed of RNA plus protein) Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath DNA AND RNA COMPARISON DNA PENTOSE SUGAR BASES STRUCTURE Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath RNA DNA AND RNA COMPARISON DNA RNA PENTOSE SUGAR DEOXYRIBOSE RIBOSE BASES A, T, G, C A, U, G, C STRUCTURE DOUBLE STRANDED SINGLE STRANDED Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Protein Synthesis Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-28 For each step in Protein Synthesis, you should be able to: Name the step Give the location of the step in the cell Name molecules involved in the process Name the overall result of each step Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION (in nucleus) (at ribosome) GENE MESSENGER PROTEIN Transfer RNA (DNA) RNA Polymerase RNA brings amino acids Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: TWO MAJOR STEPS TRANSCRIPTION OCCURS IN NUCLEUS RNA POLYMERASE ALLOWS FOR THE MAKING OF A STRAND OF MESSENGER RNA mRNA IS COMPLEMENTARY TO THE DNA GENE (and now carries code for protein to be synthesized) TRANSLATION OCCURS AT RIBOSOME TRANSFER RNA BRINGS AMINO ACIDS TO RIBOSOME mRNA IS TRANSLATED INTO A PROTEIN Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath TRANSCRIPTION OCCURS IN NUCLEUS DNA UNWINDS AND UNZIPS (HYDROGEN BONDS ARE BROKEN) RNA POLYMERASE POSITIONS RNA NUCLEOTIDES ALONG THE GENE AND BONDS BACKBONE TOGETHER FORMING A STRAND OF MESSENGER RNA mRNA IS COMPLEMENTARY TO THE DNA GENE (and now carries code for protein to be synthesized) IF GENE IS: THEN mRNA is: TACGATTGCCAA AUGCUAACGGUU THE mRNA IS READ IN THREE BASE CODONS AUG CUA ACG GUU Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Figure 04.22 Hydrogen bonds Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath TRANSLATION mRNA IS TRANSLATED INTO A PROTEIN OCCURS AT RIBOSOMES TRANSFER RNA BRINGS AMINO ACIDS TO RIBOSOME tRNA HAS ANTICODON WHICH IS COMPLEMENTARY TO mRNA codon IF mRNA CODON IS AUG, THEN tRNA ANTICODON IS UAC TWO CODONS ARE READ IN RIBOSOME AT A TIME FREE IN CYTOPLASM ON ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM PEPTIDE BOND IS FORMED BETWEEN TWO AMINO ACIDS RIBOSOME MOVES AND POSITIONS NEXT CODON CODONS ARE READ UNTIL STOP CODON IS REACHED Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Protein Synthesis Overview: 2 steps Name step Locate step in the cell Name molecules involved in process Name overall result of each step Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Protein Synthesis Overview: 2 steps Name step TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION Locate step in the cell NUCLEUS RIBOSOME (free or on RER Name molecules involved in process DNA is copied into strand of messenger RNA (mRNA), which is complementary to DNA code (gene). Name overall result of each step A STRAND OF Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath mRNA mRNA is translated into a protein. transfer RNAs bring appropriate amino acids to ribosome to be incorporated into mRNA is constructed by protein enzyme, RNA polymerase, using RNA nucleotides in nucleus A PROTEIN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION (in nucleus) (at ribosome) GENE MESSENGER PROTEIN Transfer RNA (DNA) RNA Polymerase RNA brings amino acids Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Protein Synthesis Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-28 Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS (PROTEIN) T A C T T G C A A T C G A T T Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath tRNA anticodon SEQUENCE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS (PROTEIN) T A C A U G T T G A A C C A A G U U T C G A G C A T T U A A Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath tRNA anticodon SEQUENCE Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS (PROTEIN) T A C A U G MET (METHIONINE) START T T G A A C C A A G U U T C G A G C A T T U A A Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath tRNA anticodon SEQUENCE Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS (PROTEIN) T A C A U G MET (METHIONINE) START T T G A A C ASN (ASPARGINE) C A A G U U T C G A G C A T T U A A Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath tRNA anticodon SEQUENCE Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS (PROTEIN) T A C A U G MET (METHIONINE) START T T G A A C ASN (ASPARGINE) C A A G U U VAL (VALINE) T C G A G C A T T U A A Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath tRNA anticodon SEQUENCE Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS (PROTEIN) T A C A U G MET (METHIONINE) START T T G A A C ASN (ASPARGINE) C A A G U U VAL (VALINE) T C G A G C SER (SERINE) A T T U A A Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath tRNA anticodon SEQUENCE Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS (PROTEIN) T A C A U G MET (METHIONINE) START T T G A A C ASN (ASPARGINE) C A A G U U VAL (VALINE) T C G A G C SER (SERINE) A T T U STOP A A Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath tRNA anticodon SEQUENCE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS (PROTEIN) tRNA anticodon SEQUENCE T A C A U G MET (METHIONINE) START U A C T T G A A C ASN (ASPARGINE) U U G C A A G U U VAL (VALINE) C A A T C G A G C SER (SERINE) U C G A T T U STOP A A Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath A U U Protein Synthesis Overview: 2 steps Name step Locate step in the cell Name molecules involved in process Name overall result of each step Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Protein Synthesis Overview: 2 steps Name step TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION Locate step in the cell NUCLEUS RIBOSOME (free or on RER Name molecules involved in process DNA is copied into strand of messenger RNA (mRNA), which is complementary to DNA code (gene). Name overall result of each step A STRAND OF Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath mRNA mRNA is translated into a protein. transfer RNAs bring appropriate amino acids to ribosome to be incorporated into mRNA is constructed by protein enzyme, RNA polymerase, using RNA nucleotides in nucleus A PROTEIN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TRANSCRIPTION TRANSLATION (in nucleus) (at ribosome) GENE MESSENGER PROTEIN Transfer RNA (DNA) RNA Polymerase RNA brings amino acids Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath MUTATIONS CAUSED BY ERROR IN DNA CODE (GENE) ARE CAUSED BY A VARIETY OF SOURCES MUTATIONS IN GENES, CAUSE THE ENDPRODUCT, THE PROTEIN TO BE ALTERED OR ABSENT AN ENZYME MAY NOT BE MADE AT ALL A PROTEIN MAY HAVE ALTERED FUNCTION A PROTEIN MAY BE MADE IN EXCESS Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Table 04.04 Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath MUTATIONS IN GENES CAUSE THE ENDPRODUCT, PROTEIN TO BE ALTERED OR ABSENT AN ENZYME MAY NOT BE MADE AT ALL CHILDHOOD STORAGE DISEASES PKU A PROTEIN MAY HAVE ALTERED FUNCTION ALTERED CHLORIDE PUMP IN CYSTIC FIBROSIS ALTERED HEMOGLOBIN IN SICKLE CELL ANEMIA A PROTEIN MAY BE MADE IN EXCESS. EXCESS GABA AND EPINEPHRINE IN EPILEPSY Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Clinical Application Phenylketonuria PKU • enzyme that breaks down the amino acid phenylalanine is missing • build up of phenylalanine causes mental retardation • treated by diets very low in phenylalanine Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath 4-32 Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath A genetic order albinism, results in lack of melanin in skin, hair, and irises Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 4.26 STARTING MATERIALS Enzyme #1 INTERMEDIATE #1 Enzyme #2 ALA dehydratase deficiency Enzyme #3 acute intermittent porphyria Enzyme #4 congenital erythropoietic porphyria INTERMEDIATE #2 INTERMEDIATE #3 INTERMEDIATE #4 Enzyme #5 porphyria cutanea tarda INTERMEDIATE #5 Enzyme #6 coproporphyria Enzyme #7 porphyria variegata Enzyme #8 erythropoietic protoporphyria INTERMEDIATE #6 INTERMEDIATE #7 HEME Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath MUTATIONS IN GENES CAUSE THE ENDPRODUCT, PROTEIN TO BE ALTERED OR ABSENT AN ENZYME MAY NOT BE MADE AT ALL CHILDHOOD STORAGE DISEASES PKU A PROTEIN MAY HAVE ALTERED FUNCTION ALTERED CHLORIDE PUMP IN CYSTIC FIBROSIS ALTERED HEMOGLOBIN IN SICKLE CELL ANEMIA A PROTEIN MAY BE MADE IN EXCESS. EXCESS GABA AND EPINEPHRINE IN EPILEPSY Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath Normal versus sickled erythrocyte Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath MUTATIONS IN GENES CAUSE THE ENDPRODUCT, PROTEIN TO BE ALTERED OR ABSENT AN ENZYME MAY NOT BE MADE AT ALL CHILDHOOD STORAGE DISEASES PKU A PROTEIN MAY HAVE ALTERED FUNCTION ALTERED CHLORIDE PUMP IN CYSTIC FIBROSIS ALTERED HEMOGLOBIN IN SICKLE CELL ANEMIA A PROTEIN MAY BE MADE IN EXCESS. EXCESS GABA AND EPINEPHRINE IN EPILEPSY Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath CHAPTER 4 TOPICS DIVISIONS OF METABOLISM ENZYMES ATP CELLULAR RESPIRATION Anaerobic reactions vs. Aerobic reactions DNA REPLICATION PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Catabolism and Anabolism Transcription vs. Translation MUTATIONS Copyright 2016 Dr. Mary Cat Flath