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Learning and Conditioning
Learning: any relatively permanent change in
behavior that is based upon experience.
Behaviorists: psychologists who insist that
psychologists should study only observable,
measurable behaviors, not mental processes.
I. The Assumptions of Behaviorism
A. Behaviorists are deterministic.
B. Behaviorists believe that mental explanations are
ineffective.
C. Behaviorists believe that the environment plays a
powerful role in molding behavior.
II. Two Key Types of Behaviorists
A. Radical Behaviorists: believe that internal states are
caused by events in the environment, or by genetics.
B. Methodological Behaviorists: study only events that they
can measure and observe, BUT they sometimes use those
observations to make inferences about internal events.
1) Intervening Variable: something that cannot be directly
observed yet links a variety of procedures to a variety of
possible responses.
III. Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
A. Classical Conditioning: learning based on association of
a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response
with another stimulus that does elicit the response. Applies to
involuntary responses.
1) Classical Conditioning Terminology
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)  An event that consistently and
automatically elicits an unconditioned response. (Food)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)  An action that the unconditioned
stimulus automatically elicits. (Salivation)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)  Formerly the neutral stimulus, having
been paired with the unconditioned stimulus, elicits the same response.
(Bell) That response depends upon its consistent pairing with the UCS.
Conditioned Response (CR)  The response elicited by the
conditioned stimulus due to the training. (Salivation) Usually it closely
resembles the UCR.
B. An unfamiliar neutral stimulus enhances conditioning.
C. Acquisition: the process that establishes or strengthens a
conditioned response.
D. Extinction: the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented
without the unconditioned stimulus leading to a decrease and
elimination of the response.
E. Spontaneous Recovery: the temporary return of an
extinguished response.
F. Simultaneous conditioning: the conditioned stimulus and
the unconditioned stimulus are presented at the same time.
G. Compound conditioning: two or more conditioned stimuli
are presented together with the unconditioned stimulus.
H. Stimulus generalization: the extension of a conditioned
response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli.
I. Stimulus discrimination: the process of learning to respond
differently to two stimuli because they produce two
different outcomes.
J. Drug Tolerance and Classical Conditioning
Pavlov believed that after enough training, the CS essentially became
the UCS, rather than simply a signal that the UCS was coming.
Later research determined that this is NOT the case, rather the CS does
indeed becomes a signal that the UCS is coming.
K. Blocking Effects: it is difficult to condition the same
response in an animal to more than one stimulus once an
association has been made to a previously presented stimulus.
Behaviorism:
Classical Conditioning
• John Watson: Conditioning of Fear
• Orphan boy ‘Little Albert’
– 1. Albert liked the furry rat
– 2. Rat presented with loud CRASH!
– 3. Albert cried because of
noise
– 4. Eventually, site of rat
made Albert cry
IV. Thorndike and Operant Conditioning
A. Thorndike’s Law of Effect: an animal is more likely to
repeat a behavior if it led to favorable consequences even if it
doesn’t understand why.
B. Operant Conditioning: learning based on association of
behavior with its consequences. The individual learns from the
consequences of “operating” in the environment. Applies to
voluntary responses.
C. Forms of Operant Conditioning
1) Reinforcer: an event that follows a response and
increases the future probability of that recent response.
Primary Reinforcers: are reinforcing because of their own
properties. (Food)
Secondary Reinforcers: are reinforcing because of previous
experiences. (Money) “I’ve learned through experience that I can
exchange money for food.”
2) Punishment is an event that decreases the probability of
a response. (Pain)
Operant Conditioning:
Reinforcement
• Increases likelihood of behavior
reoccurring
– Positive: Giving a reward
• Candy for finishing a task
– Negative: Removing something aversive
• No chores for getting an A+ on homework
Operant Conditioning:
Punishment
• Decreases likelihood of behavior
reoccurring
– Positive: Adding something aversive
• Extra Chores
– Negative: Removing something pleasant
• Taking away car keys
D. Extinction: occurs if responses stop producing
reinforcements.
E. Stimulus Generalization: occurs when a new stimulus is
similar to the original reinforced stimulus. The more similar
the new stimulus is to the old, the more strongly the subject
is likely to respond.
F. Discriminative Stimulus: a stimulus that indicates which
response is appropriate or inappropriate.
G. Belongingness: the concept that certain stimuli are
classified together or more readily associated with certain
outcomes more so than with others.
V. Skinner and the Shaping of Behavior
A. Shaping: establishes new responses by reinforcing
successive approximations to it.
B. Schedule of Reinforcement: is a set of rules of procedures
for delivery of reinforcement.
C. Continuous Reinforcement: provides reinforcement
every time a response occurs.
D. Intermittent Reinforcement: sometimes a particular
response is reinforced and other times it is not.
1) Ratio: when the delivery of reinforcement depends on
the number of responses given by the individual.
2) Interval: when delivery of reinforcement depends on the
amount of time that has passed since the last reinforcement.
E. Four Subcategories of Intermittent Reinforcement
1) Fixed-Ratio Schedule: provides reinforcement only after a certain
“fixed” number of correct responses have been made.
2) Variable-Ratio Schedule: provides reinforcement after a variable
number of correct responses.
3) Fixed-Interval Schedule: provides reinforcement for the first response
made after a specific time interval.
4) Variable-Interval Schedule: provides reinforcement after a variable
amount of time has elapsed.
Extinction of responses tends to take longer when an individual has
been on an intermittent schedule, especially one that is variable,
rather than a continuous schedule.
One explanation for this difference is that on an intermittent schedule,
the lack of reinforcement does not signify the complete ending of
all reinforcements. It’s harder to tell when your experiences with
reinforcement are truly over.
VI. Applications of Operant Conditioning
A. Animal Training
B. Breaking Bad Habits
1) Behavior Modification: the clinician determines which
reinforcers sustain an undesirable behavior and then tries
to change the behavior by reducing the opportunities for
reinforcement of the unwanted behavior and providing
reinforcers for a more acceptable behavior.
VII. Other Kinds of
Learning
A. Conditioned Taste
Aversions
B. Social Learning: we learn about many behaviors before
we attempt them for the first time by observing the behaviors
of others and from imagining the consequences of our own.
C. Bandura’s
“Bobo” Doll Study
D. Self-Efficacy in Social Learning: we tend to imitate people
we admire and who are perceived as similar to us in some
fashion.