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Social Psychology SW understand how society and culture influence a person’s behavior and mental processes “We cannot live for ourselves alone; our lives are connected by a thousand invisible threads” -Herman Melville (author of Moby Dick) If a friend gets angry with your (for no apparent reason), how do you explain their behavior? If a friend does something nice for you, how do you explain their behavior? Social Psychologists Explore connections by scientifically studying how we think about, influence, and relate to one another Social Psychology • How do we explain people’s behavior? • How do we form our beliefs and attitudes? • How does what we think affect what we do? Especially when the unexpected occurs, we analyze why people act as they do. How do we tend to explain others’ behavior and our own? • Attribution Theory: – Fritz Heider (1958): Studied how people explain others’ behavior – Found that people attributed others’ behavior either to their internal dispositions or to their external situations • Example: An teacher may wonder whether a child’s hostility reflects an aggressive personality (internal dispositions) or whether the child is reacting to stress or abuse (external situations) Social Psychology • Fundamental Attribution Error: – The tendency for observers when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition – Example: You meet (observe) someone who is quiet, so you assume that this person is shy and will always be quiet; then you see them at a basketball game being talkative and loud and you are surprised by their behavior. Social Psychology • Attribution Theory continued… – When we explain our own behavior, we are sensitive to how our behavior changes with the situations we encounter • When explaining others’ behavior, we often commit fundamental attribution error: We disregard the situation and leap to unwarranted conclusions about their personality traits. • DON’T JUDGE A BOOK BY THEIR COVER Effects of Attribution • In everyday life, we struggle to explain others’ actions. – Jury must decide if a shooting was malicious or in self-defense – An interviewer must judge whether the applicant’s geniality is genuine • When we make such judgments, our attributions-either to the person or to the situation-have important consequences Effects of Attribution • Example: – How do you explain the poverty or unemployment rate? • Political conservatives tend to attribute such social problems to the person dispositions of the poor and unemployed themselves: “People generally get what they deserve. Those who don’t work are freeloaders. People who take initiative can still get ahead.” • Political liberals are more likely to blame past and present situations: “If you or I had to live with the same poor education, lack of opportunity, and discrimination, would we be any better off?” The Effects of Attribution Our attributions-to individuals’ dispositions or to their situationsshould be made more carefully. They have real consequences. Stereotypes Oversimplified, exaggerated or unfavorable generalization about a category of people Prejudice Unsupported generalization about a category of people Positive Psychology • We make certain attributions (or explanations) about our own behavior that are either situational or dispositional • Optimists : – More likely to attribute good events to dispositions and bad events to situations • Pessimists: – More likely to suffer depression, will make dispositional attributions for bad events and situational attributions for good events Group Work • One piece of paper per group • Working with partner, provide examples of attribution theory and fundamental attribution error you have committed (at least 2 examples per person in group) or you may create example. • How do your examples lead to stereotypes and prejudice? Group Work • Critical Thinking: – If someone you have recently gotten to know walks by you in the hall but doesn’t say hello (even as you try to say hello to them), what would you think about them? Why? – Link to class discussion: Are your thoughts about your good friend’s behavior different than your thoughts about someone you’re only acquainted with? Why or why not? Group Work • SW provide example of ANY societal event and write briefly how the event has affected their life (each person in the group must discuss) • Do you consider yourself to be a optimist or pessimist? Why? Attitudes Does what we think affect what we do, or does what we do affect what we think? Attitudes • Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose our reactions to objects, people, and events. • If we believe someone is mean, we may feel dislike for the person and act unfriendly. Attitudes Affect Actions • Our attitudes often predict our behavior • Central Route Persuasion: Occurs mostly when people are naturally involved in the issue – Ex: Member of Presidential campaign and organize rallies to promote their candidate • Peripheral Route: Occurs when people are NOT naturally involved in the issue and respond to cues (make snap judgments) – Ex: See a celebrity endorse a candidate and make decision based off of what the celebrity says Actions Affect Attitudes Not only will people sometimes stand up for what they believe, they will also come to believe in the idea they have supported. This may confirm that attitudes follow behavior The Foot-In-The-Door Phenomenon • Tendency for people who agree to a small action to comply later with a larger one – To get people to agree to something big, “start small and build” Example (Foot-In-The-Door-Phenomenon) • During Korean war, may captured U.S. soldiers were imprisoned in war camps run by Chinese communists. Without using brutality, the captors secured the prisoners’ collaboration in various activities. Some ran errands or accepted favors. Others made radio appeals and false confessions, while some divulged military information. When the war ended, 21 prisoners chose to stay with the communists, while more returned home “brainwashed” and convinced that communism was a good thing for Asia Example of POW camp Role-Playing Affects Attitudes • When you adopt a new role-you leave middle school and begin high school, start a new job-you try to follow social rules-you strive to follow the social prescriptions – As you begin high school, you follow new rules, find new friends (be nice, polite), learn new subjects – When you being a new job, you follow dress codes, follow new rules (clock in and clock out), make new friends (be nice, polite) Philip Zimbardo (1972) • Professor of Psychology at Stanford University • Wanted to study conformity • Important study in our understanding of how situational forces can influence human behavior Philip Zimbardo (1972) Male college students (screened about their attitudes, beliefs and to ensure they were psychological healthy) volunteered to spend time in a simulated prison in the basement of a building at Stanford University Stanford Prison Experiment http://www.prisonexp.org/psychology/2 Zimbardo Study Cont’d… • Randomly designated as guards; he game them uniforms, Billy clubs and whistles and instructed them to enforce certain rules. • The remainder became prisoners; they were locked in barren cells and forced to wear humiliated outfits. • After a day or two in which the volunteers selfconsciously “played” their roles, the simulation became real-too real. Zimbardo Study Cont’d… Stanford Prison Experiment http://www.prisonexp.org/psychology/5 Zimbardo Study Cont’d… • Most of the guards developed disparaging attitudes, and some devised cruel and degrading routines. One by one, the prisoners broke down, rebelled or became passively resigned, causing Zimbardo to call off the study after only six days. Cognitive Dissonance: Relief from Tension Actions affect attitudes; turning prisoners into collaborators, doubters into believers, acquaintances into friends, and compliant guards into abusers WHY? Cognitive Dissonance Theory Leon Festinger • When our actions and attitudes are not the same, we experience tension (Cognitive Dissonance) – To relieve the tension, people often bring their attitudes into line with their actions – People rationalize “If I chose to do it (or say it), I must believe in it”. • The less influence and more responsible we feel for a troubling act, the more dissonance we feel. • The more dissonance we feel, the more motivated we are to find consistency, such as changing our attitudes to help justify the act Example Although we cannot directly control all our feelings, we can influence them by altering our behavior. If we are unloving, we can become more loving by behaving as if we were so-by doing thoughtful things, expressing affection, giving affirmation Example If you are feeling down: talk more positive and in self-accepting ways with fewer self-put-downs Individual Activity • On a piece of paper, please answer the following: – Driving to school one snowy day, Marco narrowly misses a car that slides through a red light. “Slow down! What a terrible driver,” he thinks to himself. Moments later, Marco himself flips through an intersection and yelps, “Wow! These roads are awful. The city plows need to get out here.” • What social psychology principle has Marco just demonstrated? In your own words, explain the principle and explain why you selected that principle. Social Influence How do we influence each other? How are we affected by pressures to conform and obey, by group interaction and by cultural influences? Social Psychology The entire point is the enormous power of social influence on our attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and actions This influence can be seen in our conformity, compliance, and group behavior (suicides, bomb threats, airplane hijackings all have a tendency to come in clusters/ advertisements want to sway you to purchase something) Example: Hazing is considered a part of Social Influence Conformity and Obedience • Behavior is contagious (if one person giggles, coughs or yawns, others in the group are soon to do the same) – We are natural mimics (Tanya Chartrand and John Bargh-1999) • Chameleon Effect: Unconsciously mimicking others’ expressions, postures, and voice tones helps us to feel what they are feeling • Helps explain why we feel happier around happy people than around depressed ones, and why studies of groups reveal mood linkage- sharing up and down moods Group Pressure and Conformity • Conformity: Adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard – Solomon Asch (1955): Study conformity. Devised plan that he called a visual test, but was test to see how would people conform • One standard line and 3 comparison lines • Found more than one third of the time, these “intelligent and well-meaning” college-student participants were then wiling to “call white black” by going along with the group Conditions that Strengthen Conformity • • • • One is made to feel incompetent or insecure The group has at least three people The group is unanimous One admires the group’s status and attractiveness • Others in the group observe one’s behavior • One’s culture strongly encourages respect for social standards Cultural Connection • What are the qualities of cultures that encourage conformity? • What types of government do these cultures have? Are they all communistic , democratic, or a mixture of both? • On whom do these cultures encourage conformity-government officials, families, adults, or all of the above? • How do these cultures handle people who don’t conform? Do they suffer formalized punishment (jails, fines, etc.) or more informal social punishment (shunning, lack of job advancement, etc.)? Reasons for Conforming • Normative Social Influence: Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval – We are sensitive to social norms, (understood rules for accepted and expected behavior) because of the price we pay for being different • Informational Social Influence: Influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality – Groups may provide valuable information and only an uncommonly stubborn person will never listen to others Stanley Milgram (1933-1984) • • • • Student of Solomon Asch Social Psychologist Became professor at Yale University Wanted to study how people responded to social pressures (conformity and obedience) Demo • Stanley Milgram: Asked his students to violate a social norm, such as asking another passenger for their seat on a city bus or subway. – One student responded “I couldn’t go on. It was one of the most difficult things I ever did in my life.” • Milgram then tried it himself. He approached a seat and reluctantly said “Excuse me, sir, may I have your seat?” – To Milgram’s surprise, the man gave up his seat. In taking the man’s seat, Milgram said he felt overwhelmed to justify his request, so his head sank into his knees…and he felt as though he was to perish. – It was not until Milgram left the train station he felt relieved. Milgram: Obedience •Asked college students in ad in newspaper to come to psychology department at Yale University •Draw from hat to be teacher or learner: •Teacher: Sit in front of desk with switches marked with “voltage” •Learner: Let to another room and strapped into a chair •Experiment: To teach the learner pair of words using a list Milgram: Obedience • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pdb20gcc_Ns • 65% fully complied with experiment Lessons Learned from Conformity and Obedience “Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, an become agents in a terrible destructive process” (Milgram, 1974) Group Influence • How do groups affect our behavior? • How are we influenced by people watching us or joining us in various activities? Social Facilitation • Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others – Example: Norman Triplett (1898) had adolescents wind a fishing reel as rapidly as possible, he discovered that they wound the reel faster in the presence of someone doing the same thing. ***Point to remember: What you do well, you are likely to do even better in front of an audience, especially a friendly audience; what you normally find difficult may seem all but impossible when you are being watched*** Effects of Group Interaction • Group Polarization: The enhancement of a group’s prevailing opinions through discussion within the group – Example: It amplifies a sought-after spiritual awareness of reinforces the resolve of those in a self-help group, or strengthens feelings of tolerance in a low-prejudice group. Groupthink • The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives – Example: To preserve a good group feeling, any opposing views are suppressed or self-censored (no one speaks strongly against the idea, so everyone assumes a consensus support) Cultural Influence • How do cultural norms affect our behavior? • As social creatures, our human readiness to learn from and adapt to those around us includes the influence of our surrounding culture. – Culture: behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next – Norms: Rules for accepted and expected behavior – Personal Space: The portable buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies or we feel uncomfortable Social Loafing • The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable Deindividuation • The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity Lessons from Conformity • The Power of One: – People aren’t sheep; social control and personal control interact. When pressured, we may react by doing the opposite of what is expected. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bPW9mIrQcXA Social Relations • Explores how we relate to one another • What causes us to harm or help or to fall in love? • How can we move a destructive conflict toward a just peace? Prejudice (Beliefs) Means to make a “prejudgment” An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings and a predisposition to discriminatory action Stereotype (Emotions) • A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people Discrimination (Action) • Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members Example To believe that obese people are gluttonous, to feel dislike for an obese person, and to be hesitant to hire or date an obese person is to be prejudiced Prejudice is a negative attitude, discrimination is a negative behavior Social Roots of Prejudice • When some people have money, power and prestige and others do not, the “haves” usually develop attitudes that justify things as they are • Example (Extreme case): Slave “owners” perceived slaves as innately lazy, ignorant and irresponsible-as having the very traits that “justified” enslaving them Us and Them: Ingroup and Outgroup • Backgroud: – Thanks to our ancestral need to belong, we are group-bound species – Whether hunting, defending or attacking, 10 hands were better than 2 – Dividing the world into “us” and “them” entails racism and war, but it also provides the benefits of communal solidarity – Thus we cheer for our groups, kill for them, die for them In Group “Us”-people with whom we share a common identity Outgroup • “Them”-those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup Ingroup Bias • Favoring one’s own group Scapegoat Theory • Theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame Other-Race Effect • The tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races Just-World Phenomenon • The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get Discussion • Do you believe that illness is payback for mistakes in life? • If you were diagnosed with a terminal illness, would you wonder what you did to deserve such an illness? Why or why not? Aggression Aggression • Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy, whether done reactively out of hostility or proactively as a calculated means to an end Aggression • Genetic Influence • Neural Influence: No one spot in brain; neural system will facilitate aggression. Frontal lobe for inhibiting aggression • Biochemical Influence: Hormones, alcohol, and other substances Psychological and Social Cultural Factors in Aggression • Frustration-Aggression Principle: The principle that frustration-the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal-creates anger, which can generate aggression Romantic Love Rodgers and Hammerstein Musical Prince Charming to Cinderella, “Do I love you because your beautiful, or are you beautiful because I love you?” Probably both. As we see someone again and again, and come to like them, their physical imperfections grow less noticeable and their attractiveness grows more apparent Friends and Couples • In real life, opposites retract • Birds flock together usually ARE of a feather • Share attitudes, beliefs, and interests (age, religion, race, education, intelligence, smoking behavior, and economic status) than are randomly paired people – Ex: Online dating Love • Elaine Hartfield (1988): – Two Types of Love • Temporary passionate love and Enduring companionate love Passionate Love • Theory of Emotion: Helps us understand why we feel a need to be around one another – Emotions have two ingredients: Physical plus cognitive appraisal – Physical attraction from any source can enhance one emotion or another, depending on how we interpret and label attraction • Adrenaline makes the heart grow fonder Companionate Love • Passion of romantic love subsides • “Floating on a cloud” feeling fades • Recognizing the short duration of passionate love, some societies have deemed such feelings as irrational reason for marrying – Cultures say, to choose (or have someone choose for you) a partner with compatible backgrounds and interests – Non-Western cultures, where people rate love as less important for marriage decisions, have lower divorce rates Companionate Love • Deep, affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined • Wisdom to change from passion to affection – Passionate love often produces children, survival depends on parents’ relationship with one another Companionate Love • One key to a gratifying and enduring relationship is equity – Both partners receive in proportion to what they give – Both partners freely give and receive, when they share decision making-their chances for a sustained and satisfying companionate love are good – Mutually sharing self and possessions, giving and getting emotional support and promoting and caring about one another’s welfare are at the core of every type of loving relationship Self-Disclosure • In order for a strong friendship or marriage, you must self-disclose – A revealing of intimate details about ourselves • Likes and dislikes, our dreams and worries, our proud and shameful moments – Self-disclosure breed's liking (if one person reveals more and on and on, results in developing of friendships or more---deeper intimacy) Altruism • Unselfish regard for others’ welfare – Major concern of psychologists after an especially vile act of sexual violence • Example: A knife-wielding stalker repeatedly stabbed Kitty Genovese then raped her as she lay outside her Queens, NY apartment at 3:30am on March 13, 1964. • Her cries of help were heard; people opened their windows and lights came on in apartments (38 people reported hearing her screams) • Attacker fled scene, returned to stab her 8 more times and raped her again) • Not until he left for good that someone called police at 3:50 am Bystander Intervention • Inaction in a situation-based off of presence of others • Darley and Lantane (1968) found a decision scheme: – We only help if the situation enables us first to NOTICE the incident, then INTERPRET it as an emergency, and finally to ASSUME RESPONSIBILITY for helping Bystander Effect • The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present – EX: When one other person was on the elevator, those who dropped coins were helped 40% of the time • When there were 6 passengers, help came less than 20% of the time • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OSsPfbup0ac Best Odds of Helping • • • • • • • • We have observed someone else being helpful We are not in a hurry The victim appears to need and deserve help The victim is in some way similar to us We are in a small town or rural area We are feeling guilty We are focused on others and not preoccupied We are in a good mood The Norms for Helping • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gdTpU5WZHHM • Who is he? • What were his beliefs? • Why do you think he decided to do something about what was going on the society? The Norms for Helping Why do we help people? The Norms for Helping • Social Exchange Theory: –Our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs • EX: Donating blood: Cost (discomfort, time) vs. Benefit (reduced guilt, good feelings) The Norms for Helping • Reciprocity Norm: – The expectation that we should return help, not harm, to those who have helped us The Norms for Helping • Social-Responsibility Norm: – We should help those who need our help, even if the costs outweigh the benefits Group Activity • Working with partner: – Please provide a personal example or example of social program(s) for each of the norms for helping Conflict • What in the human mind causes destructive conflict? • How might threats of social diversity be replaced by cooperation? Conflict Incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas Social Traps • We harm our collective well-being by pursuing our personal interests • A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their own goals, become caught in mutually destructive behavior Discussion • What is prejudice? • What is discrimination? • What are examples in our social history that describe this event? Jane Elliot • “A Class Divided” 1968 • 3rd grade teacher from Riceville, Iowa • 2 Day exercise • Separated students based on eye color: Brown eyes or Blue eyes • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hqp6GnYqIjQ Perceptions • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: – A belief that leads to its own fulfillment Perceptions • Mirror-Image Perceptions: – Mutual views often held by conflicting people as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive Class Activity • Please provide an example of self-fulfilling prophecy and mirror-image perceptions • How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression and conflict into attitudes that promote peace? • What do you think would be the result of putting two conflicting parties into close contract? Cooperation • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZUsBQ-dA6eU • If you have your own agenda, how do you work together as a team? Cooperation • Superordinate goals: – Shared goals that overrides differences among people and require their cooperation Communication • People usually are distrustful and pursue their own interests as a defense against being exploited – When we are given the opportunity to discuss the problems and compromise, cooperation increases • Why do you think that once we are able to communicate, it can lead to cooperation? Conflict • Researchers identify 5 strategies for dealing with social conflict – Example: Peter is looking forward to a vacation at a mountain lodge. His wife wants to go to a seaside resort • • • • • Contend (argue) Yield (agree to go with wife’s preference) Problem-Solving Approach (compromise) Inactive (hope argument will go away) Withdraw (decide not to go take any vacation) Class Activity • Write/Discuss with partner problem in your life and strategy used in how you dealt with problem • Is there a particular strategy you see a pattern you use when making decisions? Critical Thinking Exercise • Many teachers use cooperative learning groups, but are these groups truly cooperative? • What does a truly cooperative situation look like? • Do the groups they work in for projects at school reflect these qualities? • Do the groups have any superordinate goals besides getting a good grade? Critical Thinking Exercise Continued • Do the group members share common values such as hard work and attention to detail? • How are groups typically graded? Do the grading practices reduce cooperation or improve it? • How does social loafing fit into all of this?