Download Psych 1 - Learning 1

Learning Notes
I think this is a fun lesson! Anyone with pets or children has seen how these principles are
applied to behavior.
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Learning is more than taking classes! It changes your behavior and how you react in certain
situations.
A fixed action pattern is determined by genetics, specific to each species. For example, a bee
does not learn to become aggressive at the sight of blue, her genes simply turn on. Some
people believe that yawning is “contagious” (when you see someone yawn, you do, too) –
this may actually be a fixed action pattern in humans.
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Pavlov's study of the conditioned reflex provided a model of learning called classical
conditioning. He paired two unrelated stimuli so many times that his subject began to
relate the two together!
Here’s what he did:
1. In a lab setting, he rigged up a platform to put a dog.
2. He fed the dog meat powder (like crushed up dog food) which made him (the dog, not
Pavlov!) salivate.
3. Pavlov rang a bell each time he fed the dog the meat powder. At first the dog ignored it.
4. He started to ring the bell slightly BEFORE he gave the meat powder. The dog started to
associate the bell with the coming food, and began to salivate.
5. Eventually, the ringing of the bell ALONE was enough of a stimulus to get the dog to
salivate.
6. Good dog!
Salivating at the meat powder is a reflex – it’s an autonomic response that’s hard-wired into
the brain (the dog can’t stop himself).
Salivating at the bell is a conditioned response.
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So here’s the summary of Pavlov’s experiment with all the terminology…
In Pavlov's experiments, a neutral stimulus (a bell’s tone) was presented shortly before the
unconditioned stimulus (food), which naturally elicited, or brought forth, an unconditioned
response (salivation). After repeated pairings, the conditioned stimulus (the tone) alone
came to elicit the conditioned response (salivation).
•Neutral Stimulus (NS): an occurrence that does not elicit a response
•Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning
•Unconditioned response (UR): an unlearned response that is automatically associated with
the unconditioned stimulus
•Conditioned Stimulus (CS): elicits the conditioned response after being paired with the
unconditioned stimulus. This is really the NS after the learning has occurred!
•Conditioned Response (CR): the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs
after CS-US association
But does it work with people, you ask. Sure! If I always eat popcorn at the movies,
eventually I will associate one with the other. The smell of popcorn makes me feel like
watching a movie! Seeing a movie seems to make me hungry!
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•Extinction is the weakening of the conditioned response in the absence of the
unconditioned stimulus. If you stop giving the unconditioned stimulus (the food), eventually
the conditioned stimulus (the tone) won’t elicit a response. Extinction occurs when the
conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. (“You’re
not fooling me again!”)
•Spontaneous Recovery sometimes occurs when, after extinction, the conditioned stimulus is
presented and the conditioned response reappears. Spontaneous recovery is the process by
which a conditioned response can appear again after a time delay without further
conditioning. (“There’s always hope!”)
•Generalization occurs when a stimulus, similar to the conditioned stimulus, elicits the
conditioned response. You look up whenever you hear a child call, “Mom!”… and not just
from your own children!
•Discrimination is the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others. You
block out all cell phone rings except the silly song you programmed into your own.
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In 1919 John Watson conditioned baby Albert to fear a white rat. He made a loud, startling
sound, which made Albert cry. He continued to make the sound in the presence of the rat.
When he stopped the sound, Albert associated the rat with the sound and cried. Little Albert
also learned to fear other things that resembled the white furry rat (generalization). Watson
showed that fear could be classically conditioned. Here’s the video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KxKfpKQzow8
Poor baby!
Counterconditioning is a classical conditioning procedure for weakening a conditioned
response of fear by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is
incompatible with the fear. Think of it as retraining someone. Imagine that you fear spiders.
If someone began to sing a song to you in the presence of spiders, you will eventually
associate the song with spiders (and maybe not feel as afraid).
The critical element in classical conditioning is whether the conditioned stimulus provides
information that enables the organism to reliably predict the occurrence of the
unconditioned stimulus. Types of responses acquired through classical conditioning include
positive and negative emotional responses (including likes, dislikes, fears, and phobias), drug
cravings in former drug users, and conditioned immune responses.
[how many of you have the “Itsy Bitsy Spider” song stuck in your head?]
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B.F. Skinner proposed the theory of operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning), a form
of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in behavior. A reward of
some kind will increase a behavior; a punishment will reduce a behavior. The subject
(person, pet, etc.) can CHOOSE to change his/her behavior to receive a reward. This is very
different from classical conditioning, in which associations are formed beyond the subject’s
choice to react.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect : The consequences, or effect, of a response will determine
whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or
weakened. Put another way, we have a tendency to repeat responses that give us pleasure
and avoid situations that have unpleasant consequences.
Skinner's major contribution to psychology was his extensive and significant research on
operant conditioning.
Applications of operant conditioning include training animals to provide entertainment
(jump, Shamu!), to help physically challenged people use biofeedback to gain control over
internal physiological processes, and the use of behavior modification techniques to
eliminate undesirable behavior and/or encourage desirable behavior in individuals or groups.
Real world example: toilet-training a toddler by giving him/her candy whenever s/he “goes”
into the toilet.
Why do you obey the rules of the road (more or less)? Because you are avoiding punishment
(ticket, higher insurance)!
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Reinforcers are anything that follows a response that increases the likelihood that the
response will occur again.
Positive reinforcement (reward) = giving something GOOD to increase the behavior. If a child
gets good grades in school, we can give a reward, such as money, to encourage him to try to
get good grades again.
Negative reinforcement (reward) = removing something BAD to increase the behavior. Many
people mix up negative reinforcement with punishment! Negative reinforcement is actually a
GOOD thing: If a child gets good grades in school, we can take away something he doesn’t
like, such as doing chores, to encourage him to try to get good grades again.
Punishment = giving something BAD to decrease the behavior. If a child gets bad grades in
school, we can give more study time, to make him work harder to get good grades next time.
Response cost (negative punishment) = removing something GOOD to decrease the
behavior. We can take away the child’s television time, extracurricular activities, or
Gameboy until he brings his grades up!
•Punishment is used to decrease the frequency of a response; negative
reinforcement is used to increase the frequency of a response.
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•Punishment generally suppresses, rather than extinguishes, behavior; it does not
help people develop more appropriate behaviors. And it can cause fear, anger,
hostility, and aggression in the punished person.
•Punishment is most effective when it is given immediately after undesirable
behavior, when it is consistently applied, and when it is just intense enough to
suppress the behavior.
Primary reinforcers are those that fulfill a basic physical need for survival and do not depend
on learning, i.e. food. These reinforcers are innately satisfying.
Secondary reinforcers are acquired or learned by association with other reinforcers, i.e.
money. These reinforcers acquire their positive value through experience.
Internal reinforcers are also innately satisfying, but relate to an individual’s motivation (not
survival): self-esteem, happiness... Something you can give yourself.
External reinforcers come from others: money, grades, praise, votes, etc.
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Continuous reinforcement occurs when each correct response is reinforced.
Partial reinforcement occurs when correct responses are reinforced randomly or
intermittently. Behaviors are less likely to be extinguished when there is partial
reinforcement. This is why gambling can be addictive!
Fixed Ratio is reinforcement given after a fixed number of correct responses.
Variable Ratio is reinforcement given after a varying number of correct responses. The
variable-ratio schedule provides the highest response rate and the most resistance to
extinction.
Fixed interval is reinforcement given after a specific time interval has passed.
Variable Interval is reinforcement given after a varying amount of time.
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Extinction means the desired behavior stops. This occurs when reinforcement is withheld.
Shaping rewards approximations, bringing the behavior closer to the desired result. Rather
than wait for a “D” student to receive “A” grades before giving a reward, a parent will first
reward “C’s”, then later “B’s”, then finally “A’s”.
Generalization occurs when a response is made to a reinforcer that is similar to the
reinforcer that conditioned the original response. Similar to generalization in classical
conditioning.
Discriminative stimulus is a stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is
likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished. A child will look at the expression
(“discriminative stimulus”) on her parent’s face to determine whether or not she should
throw the water balloon.
Escape learning is performing a behavior whereby, an aversive event is avoided, i.e. taking an
aspirin to avoid a headache or doing the dishes before Mom has a chance to get mad.
Learned Helplessness is a passive resignation to aversive conditions learned by repeated
exposure to aversive events that are perceived inescapable and unavoidable. An abused
child learns that there is no point is trying harder; all efforts will result in abuse.
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Classical Conditioning can be used to eliminate phobias and addictions:
•Systematic desensitization. Slowly reduce the fear through deep breathing and relaxation
techniques, while slowly exposing the person to the fearful object or situation
•Flooding. Exposing the person to the fearful object or situation all at once, and maintaining
the position until the fear subsides.
•Aversion therapy. The person is given a medication which causes nausea while they are
exposed to their drug of choice. They will then associate their drug with the nausea and no
longer want it.
Operant Conditioning obviously has every day uses with children and pets. Here are some
other uses:
Biofeedback. A person can learn to control his/her physical functions, some which aren’t
usually under conscious control (My own stupid human tricks: I can speed up my heart rate
on demand and dilate my pupils).
Behavior Modification. This is the popular term for operant conditioning when used to shape
the behavior of people (usually kids) and pets.
Token Economy. Rather than money, using a token or point system for rewarding behavior.
These points or tokens can be traded in for treats, prizes, or privilege.
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The chart in the textbook shows the differences between classical and operant conditioning.
I think the biggest difference is in the type of response: with classical conditioning, you can’t
stop yourself from responding; with operant conditioning, your conscious behavior affects
the outcome.
Other forms of Learning
•Cognitive learning is learning through thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering and
forming mental representations…what you’re doing in this class!
•Insight is learning which arises in a new situation based on experience in prior unrelated
situations…an “a-ha!” moment.
•Latent Learning is learning which was learned for no apparent reason, but exhibits itself
when a reason for it occurs…you learn it, but you don’t use it until you have to (I know that if
my car skids I’m supposed to turn my wheel in the direction of the skid, but I’ve never had to
do it…yet.).
•Observational learning results when people observe the behavior of others (called
“models”) and note the consequences of that behavior, thereby repeating or avoiding it
themselves…why you should be a good role model for your kids!
How does culture affect learning? Some cultures are said to value learning more, when in
fact, these cultures (Asian, Jewish, white) value traditional education. Other cultures
(African-American, Latino, Native-American) value more experiential learning (experiencing
life, not just reading about it), which is harder to measure. The debate is evident within the
testing of school-children. If children should be tested, what are we measuring? School
effectiveness? The children’s ability to learn? The affect of their culture on learning? No
single test can produce a pure measure of these things.
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