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Myers’ Psychology ® for AP , 2e David G. Myers PowerPoint Presentation Slides by Kent Korek Germantown High School Worth Publishers, © 2014 AP® is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board ®, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product. Unit 6: Learning Unit 06 - Overview • How We Learn and Classical Conditioning • Operant Conditioning • Operant Conditioning’s Applications, a Comparison to Classical Conditioning • Biology, Cognition, and Learning • Learning By Observation Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation. ADAPTATION • Adaptation is adjusting to a changed environment • Development involves adapting to increasingly complex environments, using knowledge gained from experience • Instinctive behavior is adaptive (ex:imprinting, others?) 5 Definition Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. Learning is more flexible in comparison to the genetically-programmed behaviors of Chinooks, for example. 6 HABITUATION • Habituation is a type of learning: adapting to stimuli that do not change • It is NOT because the organism has learned about a relationship or an association • Opponent Process Theory by Richard Solomon is based on habituation. What topic have we associated with this theory? 7 Opponent Process Pleasure Pain 8 OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY • Habituation to repeated stimuli is the result of two interacting processes: – A Process = fixed automatic, emotional, unlearned response (1st HIGH) – B Process = initially slower reaction, triggered by the A Process; counter effect of A Process – this reaction starts to increase with repeated exposure (crash) – Explains emotions (gift), drug dependency 9 How Do We Learn? EXPERIENCE IS THE KEY TO LEARNING We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. 2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this law of association. Then 200 years ago Locke and Hume reiterated this law. 10 How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning How Do We Learn? Operant Conditioning Let’s try it !! 13 ACTIVITY • What behavior (response) was demonstrated? • What action (stimulus) led to the behavior? • Was the behavior voluntary or involuntary? Did this change? • What word (neutral stimulus) became associated with the stimulus? • How long did this take? • What might cause the response to disappear? 14 Classical Conditioning Sovfoto Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) 15 BEHAVIORISM • Behaviorism is a view that Psychology should: – Be an objective science (currently accepted) – Study behavior without reference to mental processes, therefore a rejection of introspection (currently not accepted) 16 Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments Pavlov’s Experiments Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not. 18 Pavlov’s Experiments During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR) 19 PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT • Basic Components of Classical Conditioning: – Natural reflex (automatic, involuntary) – Stimulus causes behavior – Response is the reaction Association of neutral stimuli with stimuli that produces response Unconditioned = Unlearned Conditioned = Learned 20 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (WRITE THIS DOWN!) • TERMINOLOGY – – – – Conditioned = Learned Unconditioned = Unlearned Stimulus = Causes a response Response = Behavioral reaction to stimulus • BASIC COMPONENTS: – – – – Natural reflex (automatic, involuntary) Neutral stimulus Association of stimuli Timing 21 Acquisition Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place. 1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus. 2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second. 22 Acquisition The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur. 23 Learning to enjoy exercise 24 CC Clip / Worksheets http://www.youtube.com/wat ch?v=WfZfMIHwSkU •CC Boxes – on your own •CC - Partner work 25 Extinction When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction. Example? 26 RECONDITIONING THE QUICK RELEARNING OF A CONDITIONED RESPONSE AFTER EXTINCTION Example: Soldier is redeployed and quickly goes back to survival responses. 27 Spontaneous Recovery After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again. 28 Spontaneous Recovery • Examples: • Soldier ducks/dives at the site of a fast approaching car 29 Stimulus Generalization Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation dropped. 30 Stimulus Discrimination Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Example? 31 BABY ALBERT 1. Read case study 2. Complete question #1; you may not proceed to next question until you get a “yes” from me. 3. You may not ask another student for help. 4. After receiving your “yes” move on to the remaining questions. 32 Baby Albert #1 UCS = loud bang UCR = startle & cry NS = white rat CS = white rat CR = startle & cry GS = other animals / white fury things 33 Applications of Classical Conditioning Brown Brothers Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom. John B. Watson 34 SECOND ORDER CONDITIONING • ALSO referred to as Higher Order Conditioning • When a conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditioned stimulus, creating conditioned stimuli out of events associated with it. • Example? (next slide) • Very important adaptive characteristic of cc in preparing organism for life threatening events 35 2nd Order Conditioning 1st order conditioning •Food (US) = salivate (UR) 2nd order conditioning •Same as before •Container (NS) = Food (US) = Salivate UR) •Alarm clock (NS1) = Container (CS) = Salivate (CR) •Container (CS) = Salivate (CR) •Alarm clock (CS2) = Salivate (CR) 36 2nd Order Conditioning (Money) • 1st order: Product = Pleasure Money = Product = Pleasure • 2nd order: Money = Pleasure 37 Extending Pavlov’s Understanding Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or the mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints. 38 Cognitive Processes Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms. However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988). 39 Pavlov’s Legacy Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) 40 Applications of Classical Conditioning 1. Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively) by reversing their positive-associations with alcohol. 2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response. – Lemon flavored drug immune system – Lemon immune system 41 ACTIVITY 42 SHAPING EXERCISE • How did we get the subject to perform the behavior? • What if we had waited until he/she was able to perform the behavior perfectly before we reinforced it? • Shaping: reinforcing successive approximations 43 Operant & Classical Conditioning 1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events (consequences). 44 Operant & Classical Conditioning 2. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli. 45 Skinner’s Experiments Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again. Yale University Library 47 Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning. Walter Dawn/ Photo Researchers, Inc. 48 From The Essentials of Conditioning and Learning, 3rd Edition by Michael P. Domjan, 2005. Used with permission by Thomson Learning, Wadsworth Division Operant Chamber Operant Chamber The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response. 49 Shaping Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations (hot/cold activity). Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc. Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes. 50 SHAPING • AN EXAMPLE OF UNINTENDED SHAPING. (child’s tantrum) • CHAINING • Linking in a sequence of several different reinforced behaviors (ex. Learning to tie your shoes) 51 Types of Reinforcers Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows is a reinforcer. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold. Reuters/ Corbis 52 BIG BANG THEORY EXAMPLE • • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=guroaQ RFsX4 53 Refer to / Study … Operant Conditioning Charts handout 54 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT • Remember: the behavior increases due to the removal or the end of an aversive stimuli • Two types: – Escape conditioning: organism learns to make a response to end the negative reinforcement • Ex. Dog partition box – jumps/yelps when shocked – Avoidance conditioning: organism learns to avoid the negative reinforcer. 55 • Avoidance conditioning (continued): – A powerful influence on everyday behavior Example? (ex. Dentist, getting shots, truancy) – Maintains phobias etc. because the response is reinforced by the reduction of the fear 56 Primary & Secondary Reinforcers 1. Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. 2. Conditioned Reinforcer (sometimes called a secondary reinforcer): A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. Example? (light & food, money & stuff) 57 Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers 1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press. 2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study. 58 Delayed Gratification 59 Reinforcement Schedules 1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. Learning is very rapid but extinction is also rapid. 2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on. You may need to start with a continuous schedule. 60 PARTIAL OR INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT TERMS • • • • Fixed - Never changing Variable - Changing Interval - Having to do with time Ratio - Having to do with behavior or performance 61 Partial or Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules 1. Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., piecework pay. 2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.) 62 Interval Schedules 1. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.) Produces a scalloping response 2. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.) 63 Skinner’s Experiments Reinforcement Schedules Schedules of Reinforcement 65 Reinforcement Schedules • Handout 16-7 66 IDENTIFY THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: FI, VI, FR, VR • 1. Paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved • 2. Playing Bingo • 3. Child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm • 4. Waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach 67 IDENTIFY THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: FI, VI, FR, VR • 1. Paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved (Fixed Ratio) • 2. Playing Bingo • 3. Child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm • 4. Waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach 68 IDENTIFY THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: FI, VI, FR, VR • 1. Paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved • 2. Playing Bingo • 3. Child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm • 4. Waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach 69 IDENTIFY THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: FI, VI, FR, VR • 1. Paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved • 2. Playing Bingo (Variable Ratio) • 3. Child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm • 4. Waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach 70 IDENTIFY THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: FI, VI, FR, VR • 1. Paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved • 2. Playing Bingo • 3. Child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm • 4. Waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach 71 IDENTIFY THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: FI, VI, FR, VR • 1. Paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved • 2. Playing Bingo • 3. Child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm (Fixed Int) • 4. Waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach 72 IDENTIFY THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: FI, VI, FR, VR • 1. Paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved • 2. Playing Bingo • 3. Child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm • 4. Waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach 73 IDENTIFY THE SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT: FI, VI, FR, VR • 1. Paid 10 dollars for every 20 puzzles solved • 2. Playing Bingo • 3. Child who likes to hear theme music from Jeopardy every night at 7 pm • 4. Waiting for a sunny day to go to the beach (Variable Interval) 74 Punishment An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows. 75 PUNISHMENT • REMEMBER: • POSITIVE IS TO ADD • NEGATIVE IS TO SUBTRACT • DO NOT THINK IN TERMS OF GOOD AND BAD! 76 PUNISHMENT • With a partner: – Give an example of positive punishment for a child, a teenager, and an adult – Give an example of negative punishment for a child, a teenager, and an adult 77 PUNISHMENT • What methods do parents and teachers use to punish children/teens? • What methods work? Why? • What methods don’t work? Why? • What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment? 78 PUNISHMENT • What methods do parents and teachers use to punish children/teens? • What methods work? Why? • What methods don’t work? Why? • What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment? – Neg. Reinf. = take away to increase a behavior – Punishment = something to decrease behavior 79 PUNISHMENT • Select an example you are comfortable sharing of a time when you were punished. Write a short journal type description of the incident (one paragraph). What were the short term and long term effects? The paragraph will not be handed in, but will be shared with a partner. 80 Punishment Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Results in unwanted side effect such as fear. Conveys no information to the organism. Justifies pain to others. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence. Causes aggression towards the agent. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another. Does not erase an undesirable habit, it merely suppresses it Ineffective unless applied immediately after and each time Does not specify correct behavior 81 GUIDELINES IN USING PUNISHMENT • Specify why • Concentrate on behavior not the person • Should be immediate and strong enough without being too strong • Be careful of escalation (if punishment is not given early enough, bad behavior escalates). What might cause parent escalation? (Broken Window) • Combine with other behavior 82 Extending Skinner’s Understanding Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for discounting them. Or 83 Skinner’s Legacy Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will. Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc . 84 Application of Operant Conditioning • • • • At school In sports At home For self-improvement Applications of Operant Conditioning Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards. LWA-JDL/ Corbis In School 87 Applications of Operant Conditioning - Examples? • • • • Culturally approved gender roles Discriminative stimuli (insomnia) Socialization Others? 88 Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Module 29: Biology, Cognition, and Learning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning • John Garcia –Conditioned Taste Aversion –Biologically primed associations • Natural Selection and Learning –Genetic predisposition TASTE AVERSION ACTIVITY: SOUP Use a 9 point scale (1 = dislike extremely) • 1. Stirred by a thoroughly washed, used flyswatter. • 2. Flyswatter is brand new. • 3. Thoroughly washed but used comb • 4. Thoroughly washed, used dog bowl 110 TASTE AVERSION: FAVORITE COOKIE • • • • 5. 6. 7. 8. Dropped it on the grass first? A waiter had taken a bite first? An acquaintance had taken a bite first? A good friend had taken a bite first? 111 TASTE AVERSION • The association principle is everything when it comes to food. Rozin’s results: • 1. 82% a 4 or less (clean flyswatter) • 2. 58% disliked (brand new flyswatter) • 3. 76% disliked (clean, used comb) • 4. 71% disliked (washed dog bowl) 112 Taste Aversion • • • • 5. 6. 7. 8. Only 34% would pass up (grass) 84% reject (waiter) 31% reject (acquaintance) Just 16% refuse (friend) 113 Taste Aversion and Biological Predispositions • Have you ever gotten sick after eating a particular food? • How did you feel about/react to the food after the incident? • How strong was this feeling/reaction? • How long did the feeling/reaction last? 114 Biological Predispositions Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals. Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning. However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology. 115 Biological Predispositions Courtesy of John Garcia Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours as opposed to ½ sec.), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to others (light or sound). John Garcia 116 Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Classical Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning Limits on Operant Conditioning • Naturally adapting behaviors • Instinctive drift Biological Predisposition Photo: Bob Bailey Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift (instinctive drift) towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors. Marian Breland Bailey 122 Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning • Predictability of an event - Expectancy • Stimulus associations Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognitive Processes and Operant Conditioning •Latent learning •Cognitive map •Insight •Intrinsic motivation •Extrinsic motivation Latent Learning Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930). 126 Cognitive Maps Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment). 127 Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments. 128 Influences on Conditioning Influences on Conditioning Influences on Conditioning Influences on Conditioning Influences on Conditioning Learning and Personal Control Learning and Personal Control • Cope • Problem-focused coping • Emotion-focused coping Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness (Martin Seligman) Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness • (Martin Seligman) Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness • (Martin Seligman) Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness • (Martin Seligman) Learning and Personal Control Learned Helplessness: Depleting and Strengthening Self-Control OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: Cubing Exercise • Develop ideas for picture, diagram, etc for each concept regarding observational learning listed on your sheet • Record your ideas on your cube; make use of color (enhances memory) • Construct your cube • Share ideas used on your cube with another student pair 142 Learning by Observation © Herb Terrace Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. ©Herb Terrace The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. 143 Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004) © 2004 AAAS. Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. 144 Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk. Imitation Onset 145 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING • Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment • BANDURA BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT 146 Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University Bandura's Experiments 147 Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects. 148 Positive Observational Learning Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. 149 Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images Television and Observational Learning 150 Modeling Violence Children modeling after pro wrestlers Glassman/ The Image Works Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. 151 The End