Download Learning

Learning
Chapter 5
Classical Conditioning
Learning = modification of preexisting behavior
and understanding.
Pavlov’s Discovery
• Classical Conditioning – neutral stimulus is paired
(repeatedly) w/ a stimulus that triggers a reflexive
response until neutral stimulus alone comes to trigger a
similar response.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)– a stimulus that
triggers a response w/o conditioning.
• Unconditioned Response(UCR) – automatic,
unlearned, reflexive reaction to a stimulus.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – the original neutral
stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response.
• Conditioned Response (CR) – response triggered
by the conditioned stimulus.
• Cour
• Cour
• Cour
Conditioned Response Over Time
• Extinction – gradual disappearance of a CR.
• Reconditioning – relearning of a CR.
• Spontaneous Recovery – temporary reappearance
of a CR after extinction.
Stimulus Generalization & Discrimination
• Stimulus Generalization – CR triggered by a
stimuli similar to original CS.
• Stimulus Discrimination – people learn to
differentiate among similar stimuli & respond
appropriately to each one.
The Signaling of Significant Events
• There is more to conditioning than pairing a neutral
stimulus w/ a conditioned stimulus to get a conditioned
response.
– Timing, results best when CS come before UCS. Better
associations when thing occur nearly the same time, weaker
when intervals are longer.
– Predictability – CC occurs faster when the CS always
signals the UCS. Slower if not as predicable.
– Intensity – More rapid conditioning occurs when UCS is
stronger.
– Attention – stimulus you were conscious of will probably
become a CS.
– Biopreparedness – seems to be a natural tendency for
certain events to become linked.
– Second-Order Conditioning – CS acts like an UCS, creating
CS out of events associated w/it. Acts as “early warning
system” so we can prepare us for threatening events.
Applications of C.C.
• Phobias
– usually starts because of CC.
– Joseph Wolpe pioneered in use of CC to treat
phobias.
– Use of systematic desensitization
• Associate new response to a feared stimuli.
• Drug Addiction
– Habituation – reduction in responsiveness to a
repeated stimulus.
– Opponent-process theory by Richard Solomon
• 1st is a UCR to drug, 2nd “opponent” process is a
response that follows & counteracts the first.
• Change of normal routine in taking drugs can cause a
fatal overdose.
Operant Conditioning
• Law of Effect – a law stating that if a response made in the
presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded, the same response
is more likely to occur when that stimulus is encountered again.
• Operant conditioning – a process in which response are learned
on the basis of their rewarding or punishing consequences.
• Puzzle Box – learn to unlock door by pressing a pedal to get food.
• Reinforcer – a stimulus that increases the probability that the
response immediately preceding it will occur again.
• Positive Reinforcers – Stimuli that strengthen a response if they
follow that response.
• Negative Reinforcers – The removal of unpleasant stimuli.
• Escape conditioning – the process of learning responses that stop
an aversive stimulus.
• Avoidance conditioning – the process of learning particular
responses that avoid an aversive stimulus.
Rewards
Extrinsic reinforcers – reward comes from outside the person Ex:
money, food, hugs, applause, etc. If used too much can kill the
desire to do for the sake of doing.
Intrinsic reinforcers – reward comes from inside the person, ex:
enjoyment of doing and accomplishing a task or job, or feeling
happy.
Discriminative Stimuli
1. Stimuli that signal whether reinforcement is available if a certain
response is made.(ex. Situations)
2. A response is under stimulus control.
3. During stimulus discrimination teaches what is appropriate &
inappropriate in a given situation.
4. Stimulus discrimination can save time & effort, but can also cause
prejudice.
Forming & Strengthening Operant Behavior
1. Shaping – the reinforcement of responses that come successively closer
to some desired response. (used to train animals)
2. Secondary Reinforcement
•
Primary reinforcers –stimuli that satisfy survival needs.(water/food)
•
Secondary reinforcers or Conditioned reinforcers – rewards that
people or animals learn to like.
•
Operant conditioning can be greatly increased by use of
secondary reinforcers.
•
Can build and maintain behavior in absence of primary
reinforcers.
3. Delay & Size of Reinforcement
•
OC is stronger when reinforcers appear soon after a response
occurs.
•
The bigger the size of reinforcers the stronger or faster OC occurs.
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed-Ratio – reinforcement given after a set amount of
responses.
•Variable-ratio – reinforcement given after a set amount of
responses but the number varies. Subject can’t predict which
response will trigger the reinforcement.
•Fixed-Interval – reinforcement given to first response after a
given time period.
•Variable-Interval – reinforcement given to first response after
a given time but time will change.
•Fixed-ratio & Variable-ratio schedules produce high response
rate due to the fact that they require high response rates to get
reinforcement.
•Partial Reinforcement – explains the persistence of
superstitions. Minor stimuli can be seen as being helping to
cause a desired outcome.
Why Reinforcers Work
• Reinforcers seem to affect pleasure centers of our brains &
producing dopamine. Creates a desire to want them, get
them.
Punishment
• Punishment – weakens operant behavior by presenting an
unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant one.
• Drawbacks1. Doesn’t erase an undesireable behaviour, just suppresses
it until person thinks they can get away w/ it.
2. Can produce unwanted behaviors or side effects.
3. Often ineffective unless given immediately after the
undesireable behavior & each time it occurs.
4. Physical punishment can lead to abuse & cause
aggressive behavior if given too often.
5. Doesn’t tell people how to improve.
Cognitive Processes in Learning
• There are mental processes at work during CC & OC.
Depends on how information is represented, stored & used.
•Has shown to affect learned helplessness, latent learning,
cognitive maps, insight & observational learning.
Learned Helplessness
•A process in which a person or animal stops trying to exert
control after experience suggests that no control is possible.
Latent Learning
•Learning not demonstrated at the time it is learned. Learning
occurs in the absence of reinforcement.
Cognitive Map
• A mental representation of the environment.
Insight
•
•
•
•
A sudden understanding of what is required to solve a
problem.
Behaviorists argue that insight is just the combination of
previously learned patterns.
Not excusive to humans.
Wolfgang Kohler studied cognitive aspects of learning
using chimpanzees. Conclusion = Insight. Why?
1. Tried to use previous solutions to solve new problems.
2. Rarely tried a solution that didn’t work. Solution was
“thought out.”
3. Often reached a solution suddenly.
• Alternative explanations to Kohler:
1. Trial-and-error process necessary for chimps
2. All known cases of “insight” subject has long
experience w/ objects used to solve the problem.
Observational Learning/Social Learning
1. Learning by watching the behavior and consequences of others.
2. OL is efficient and adaptive.
3. “Bobo” doll study by Albert Bandura
•
3 groups of children saw 3 different endings; adult rewarded,
scolded & neutral (nothing happened)
•
Vicarious Conditioning – kind of observational learning
through which a person is influenced by watching or
hearing about the consequences of others’ behavior.
1. Rewarded group showed most aggressive acts
2. Punished group showed least aggressive acts.
3. Neutral group showed many kids imitate aggressive acts
4. OL is a strong force in the socialization of children, learn
appropriateness of behaviors.
Learning to Learn
Some of the most successful educational techniques are:
1. Frequent testing
2. Positive reinforcement for correct performance
3. Immediate feedback following mistakes.
Increase Retention of Material
1. Study in several sessions over time, not all the night before.
2. Give more exams/quizzes to ensure more regular studying.
3. Learning is aided by repeated opportunities to use new
information, exams/quizzes should test previously learned
and new information.
Active Learning
• Exams scores seem to be higher during times of student
participation in activities than during times of passive
learning. Examples: Small group problem solving tasks,
case studies, “hands on” practice, discussion of “oneminute essays,” thumbs-up/thumbs-down.”
Skill Learning
• Develops through learning that includes feedback and lots
of practice.
• Skill needs to be practiced to point of automatic
performance, unconscious performance.