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CHAPTER 5: LEARNING WHY AND HOW DO PEOPLE AND ANIMALS LEARN? LEARNING (7-9%) AP students in psychology should be able to do the following: • Distinguish general differences between principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning (e.g., contingencies). • Describe basic classical conditioning phenomena, such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, and higher-order learning. • Predict the effects of operant conditioning (e.g., positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment). • Predict how practice, schedules of reinforcement, and motivation will influence quality of learning. • Interpret graphs that exhibit the results of learning experiments. • Provide examples of how biological constraints create learning predispositions. • Describe the essential characteristics of insight learning, latent learning, and social learning. • Apply learning principles to explain emotional learning, taste aversion, superstitious behavior, and learned helplessness. • Suggest how behavior modification, biofeedback, coping strategies, and self-control can be used to address behavioral problems. • Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning (e.g., Albert Bandura, John Garcia, Ivan Pavlov, Robert Rescorla, B. F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike, Edward Tolman, John B. Watson). CHAPTER 5.1: DEFINITION OF LEARNING WHAT DOES THE TERM LEARNING REALLY MEAN? LEARNING: A DEFINITION Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice: What does “Relatively Permanent” mean? When you learn, your brain changes physically….but the memory process makes this more complex (hold on until chapter 6) 2 Important Parts make up learning process: 1) Learning is a LASTING CHANGE. Reflexes are not learning 2) Learning as a mental process is much harder to observe and study Learning > Instincts IS ANY KIND OF CHANGE LEARNING? Any change in an organisms BEHAVIOR is learning Maturation: changes like, increase in height or brain size are which genetic (NOT Learning) Example: A baby cannot learn to walk before maturation despite practice or experience. It must wait until brain and body have matured or developed 5.2: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: “IT MAKES YOUR MOUTH WATER” HOW WAS CLASSICAL CONDITIONING FIRST STUDIED, AND WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANT ELEMENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING? IVAN PAVLOV AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING One of most famous people in the study of learning is Ivan Pavlov. Originally studying salivation and digestion, Pavlov stumbled upon classical conditioning while he was experimenting on his dog. Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (stimuli w/o reflex provoking power) acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus. PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (UCS) Unconditioned Stimulus: A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary (reflex) response. “unlearned” or “naturally occurring”. Example: The food in Pavlov’s experiment (UCR)Unconditioned Response: An involuntary (reflex) response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus. Unlearned Response. Part of the “genetic wiring” Example: The salivating in Pavlov’s experiment ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CONTINUED) (NS) Neutral Stimulus: Stimulus that has no effect on the desired response Example: The food bowl (before) or the Bell (before) (CS) Conditioned Stimulus: Stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. Example: The Bell (after) (CR)Conditioned Responses: Learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus Example: The dog salivating in response to the bell BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 1) The CS must come before the UCS 2) The CS and UCS must come very close together in time-ideally, no more than 5 seconds apart 3) The neutral stimulus must be paired with the UCS several times, often many times before the conditioning can take place 4) The CS is usually some stimulus that is distinctive or stands out from other competing stimuli MR WRAY’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING VIDEO 1. Describe how Mr Wray’s video explains each essential piece of Classical Conditioning. 1. UCS: 2. UCR: 3. NS: 4. CR: 5. CS: GENERALIZATION AND DISCRIMINATION Stimulus Generalization:The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response Example: Feeling of anxiety at the sound of a dentist drill = anxiety at the sound of a similar sounding machine Stimulus Discrimination:The tendency to stop making a generalized response to a timulus that is similar to the original CS becaue the similar stimulus is never paired with the UCS Example: Coffee grinder causes anxiety because it sounds like dentist drill, but stops causing anxiety after a few uses. EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY Extinction: The disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the UCS or Reinforcer (operant conditioning) To acquire a CR, we repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus with the UCS. But, if we want to reverse this learning, we must weaken the strength of the connection between the two stimuli. It is important to realize that extinction does not mean complete elimination of a response. Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred. HOMEWORK Notes Chapter 5-3: Conditioned Emotional Responses (Short Quiz next class) Finish notes for 5-2 if not completed in class Practice Quiz: pg 186 in notebook CHAPTER 5.3: CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSES (RATS!!!!) WHAT IS A CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSE AND HOW DO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS EXPLAIN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING? WATSON AND THE LITTLE ALBERT EXPERIMENT John B Watson: Founder of behaviorism-believed that any behavior could be explained in terms of learning “Little Albert” experiment paired a baby with a white rat. While the baby was not initially scared of the rat, Watson paired the rat with a loud, scary noise (UCS) The UCS caused the baby to fear the rat. Fear of the noise (UCR) caused fear or phobia of the rat (CR) CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSES Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli such as fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person. Emotional responses and stimuli vary: Example: A cute baby or puppy makes you feel happy Example: Scary music or a growling dog makes you feel fear VICARIOUS CONDITIONING It is possible to become classically conditioned just by watching other people Vicarious Conditioning: Classical Conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person. Example: A baby starts crying after watching another baby cry Example: You start to feel nautiouos after watching someone else throw up OTHER CONDITIONED RESPONSES IN HUMANS Conditioned Taste Aversion: Development of a nausea aversive response to a particular taste because taste was followed by a nausea reaction occurring after only one association Example: Why food you eat when you’re sick makes you nautious even after you’re no longer sick Biological Preparedness: Referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations , such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning Example: Birds are averse to eating foods that look like others that make them sick WHY DOES CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WORK? Stimulus Substitution: (Pavlov’s original theory) Classical Conditioning occurs because the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together. Problem: If association in time is all that is needed, then why would conditioning fail to happen when the CS is presented immediately after the UCS? Cognitive Perspective: (Modern Theory) Classical Conditioning occurs because the conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus DO NOW CHAPTER 5.4: OPERANT CONDITIONING (WHAT’S IN IT FOR ME?) HOW DOES OPERANT CONDITIONING OCCUR, AND WHAT WERE THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THORNDIKE AND SKINNER? CLASSICAL VS OPERANT CONDITIONING With classical conditioning you can teach a dog to salivate, but you cannot teach it to sit up or roll over. Why? Salivation is an involuntary reflex, while sitting up and rolling over are far more complex responses that we think of as voluntary. OPERANT CONDITIONING An operant is an observable behavior that an organism uses to “operate” in the environment. Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences…that is, by the stimuli that follows the response. B.F. SKINKER AND THE SKINKER BOX • The “Mac Daddy” of Operant Conditioning. • Nurture guy through and through. • Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts. • Law of Effect: The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or “stamped” into the organism. SKINNER BOX: WHAT IS IT? QUICK ACTIVITY: CLASSICAL OR OPERANT CONDITIONING? We will watch a series of quick movie/TV clips that will show examples of classical or operant conditioning. While watching each clip, indicate in your notebook if the clip is an example of Classical Conditioning (CC) or Operant Conditioning (OC) and give a short explanation as to why. Big Bang Theory: The Office: Simpsons: Ed, Edd and Eddy: CHAPTER 5.5:THE CONCEPT OF REINFORCEMENT WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN OPERANT CONDITIONING? REINFORCEMENT A reinforcer is a condition in which the presentation or removal of a stimulus, that occurs after a response (behavior), strengthens that response or makes it more likely to happen again in the future. PRIMARY VS SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT Primary Reinforcer Any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst or touch. Similar to the UCR in classical conditioning Example: Food=Hunger Drive, Liquid= Thirst Drive, Touch=Pleasure Drive Secondary Reinforcer Any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer. Similar to the CS in classical conditioning Example: Praise, tokens, gold stars, money POSITIVE VS NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT Positive Reinforcement A stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again. Examples: Getting paid money for good grades Getting a “Gold Star” for good behavior at school Receiving an award for a top performance Negative Reinforcement The removal of an unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases the probability of that response happening again Examples: When a child pouts and screams (behavior) and the parents take the vegetables off of their plate so they don’t have to eat them. (removal of averse stimulus) Leaving the house early (behavior) to avoid traffic (removal of averse stimulus) IDENTIFY THE REINFORCEMENT TECHNIQUE 1) Arnie’s father nags him to wash the family car. Arnie hates being nagged , so he washes the car so his father will stop nagging him 2) Trey learns that if he talks in a funny voice he gets lots of attention from classmates, so now he talks in a funny voice often 3) Allen is a server at a restaurant and always tries to smile and be pleasant because that seems to lead to bigger tips 4)An Li turns her report in to her teacher on the day it is due because papers get marked down a letter grade for every day they are late WHAT IS PUNISHMENT? Many people confuse punishment and negative reinforcement. Punishment- any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again Punishment weakens responses whereas Reinforcement strengthens responses PUNISHMENT BY APPLICATION VS PUNISHMENT BY REMOVAL Punishment by application (Positive Punishment) The punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus Examples: Punishment by Removal (Negative Punishment) The punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus Examples: Spanking a child for an undesirable behavior Grounding a child for breaking a rule Scolding a child for an undesirable behavior Fining someone for disobeying the law REINFORCEMENT VS PUNISHMENT OPERANT CONDITIONING LAB: PARTNER PROJECT HOMEWORK Finish Operant Conditioning Lab Notes: Chapter 5-6: Problems with Punishment (Short Quiz next class) Practice Quiz: pg 195 CHAPTER 5.6 PUNISHMENT AND PROBLEMS WITH PUNISHMENT WHAT IS PUNISHMENT? WHAT ARE SOME OF THE PROBLEMS WITH USING PUNISHMENT? HOW TO MAKE PUNISHMENT MORE EFFECTIVE 1. Punishment should immediately follow the behavior it is meant to punish. 2. Punishment should be consistent. 3. Punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the right behavior MORE CONCEPTS IN OPERANT CONDITIONING Shaping: The reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior Example: training a dog to jump through a hoop using smaller steps (Training dog to run through hoop on ground, then using bait to jump through hoop using bait, then associating behavior with command instead of treat) Successive Approximation: Small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior EXTINCTION, GENERALIZATION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY IN OPERANT CONDITIONING Extinction – occurs if the behavior (response) is not reinforced. Operantly conditioned responses also can be generalized to stimuli that are only similar to the original stimulus. Spontaneous recovery (reoccurrence of a once extinguished response) also happens in classical conditioning Extinction in Operant Conditioning involves the removal of the reinforcer One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to ignore it. The lack of reinforcement for the tantrum behavior will eventually result in extinction. CHAPTER 5.7:THE SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT WHAT ARE THE SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT? THE PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT EFFECT Partial reinforcement effect - the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction. Continuous reinforcement - the reinforcement of each and every correct response. Example: Alicia’s mom gives her 1 quarter each time she puts her clothes in the hamper. Bianca’s mom gives her a dollar at the end of the week if she puts her clothes in the hamper every night. Alicia learns quicker than Bianca SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same. Example: Getting a punch card from your favorite restaurant (after 10 punches you get a free sandwich) Variable interval schedule of reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event. Example: A teacher gives a pop-quiz so students learn to prepare for the class, unsure as to when they might be faced with a quiz Example: Going fishing where the results vary and often long wait and short waits can garner different responses or people may fear taking the pole out of the water in fear that they’ll “miss” a bigger, better fish. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT (CONTINUED) Fixed interval schedule - of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same. Example(s): Receiving a paycheck every 2 weeks (provided that you have shown up and performed your job for those 2 weeks) or studying harder the closer you get to an exam. Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event. Example: Using a slot machine. Putting the coins in (response) but have no idea how many times they will need to do this until they receive the reward or “jackpot”. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: EFFECTIVENESS IN CLASS: PRACTICING SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT In class we will work on practice problems to help with identifying different schedules of reinforcement HOMEWORK Notes: Chapters 5.8 and 5.9 (It’s like 4 slides so no complaining): Stimulus Control and Behavior Modification (Short Quiz Next Class) ACE Vocab 5.7 – 5.9 CHAPTER 5.8: STIMULUS CONTROL “SLOW DOWN IT’S THE COPS” HOW DO OPERANT STIMULI CONTROL BEHAVIOR, AND WHAT KIND OF BEHAVIOR IS RESISTANT TO OPERANT CONDITIONING? OPERANT STIMULI AND STIMULUS CONTROL How do we know certain automatic responses? (Slowing down when we see a cop, stopping for a red traffic light, pushing or pulling on a door handle) Our brain uses stimuli or cues to help us determine what behavior(s) will get us what we want Discriminative stimulus - any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement BEHAVIOR RESISTANT TO CONDITIONING Instinctive drift - tendency for an animal’s behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns. Each animal comes into the world (and the laboratory) with certain genetically determined instinctive patterns of behavior already in place. These instincts differ from species to species. There are some responses that simply cannot be trained into an animal regardless of conditioning. CHAPTER 5.9: APPLYING OPERANT CONDITIONING: BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION WHAT IS BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION, AND HOW CAN BEHAVIORAL TECHNIQUES BE USED TO MODIFY INVOLUNTARY BIOLOGICAL RESPONSES? BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Behavior modification - the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior. Token economy - type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens. Time-out - a form of mild punishment by removal in which a misbehaving animal, child, or adult is placed in a special area away from the attention of others. Essentially, the organism is being “removed” from any possibility of positive reinforcement in the form of attention. Applied behavior analysis (ABA) – modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping to mold a desired behavior or response. BIOFEEDBACK VS NEUROFEEDBACK Biofeedback Using feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control Neurofeedback Using EEG feedback and other brain scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity in an attempt to monitor behavior DO NOW CHAPTER 5.10: COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY HOW DO LATENT LEARNING, LEARNED HELPLESSNESS, AND INSIGHT RELATE TO COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY? COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY In the early days of studying learning – the main focus was on behavior. If it could not be measured or seen, it could not be accurately studied By the 1950s and more intensely in the 1960s, many psychologists were becoming aware that cognition, the mental events that take place inside a person’s mind while behaving, could no longer be ignored. Three important figures in cognitive learning theory include: Edward Tohlman Wolfgang Kohler Martin Seligman LATENT LEARNING Edward Tolman’s best-known experiments in learning involved teaching three groups of rats the same maze, one at a time (Tolman & Honzik, 1930). Group 1 – rewarded each time at end of maze. Learned maze quickly. Group 2 – in maze every day; only rewarded on 10th day. Demonstrated learning of maze almost immediately after receiving reward. Group 3 – never rewarded. Did not learn maze well. Latent learning - learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful. TOLMAN’S MAZE: AN EXAMPLE TOLMAN’S MAZE:THE RESULTS INSIGHT: KOHLER’S EXPERIMENT Kohler (1925): Placed a chimpanzee in a cage with a banana just out of his reach. Chimpanzee would use “trial and error” techniques to get the banana. Problem was made increasingly more difficult which caused the Chimpanzee to need more than just “trial and error” to solve Insight - the sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly. Cannot be gained through trial-and-error learning alone. “Aha” moment. SELIGMAN AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS Seligman’s study of dogs was originally designed to study escape and avoidance learning but instead discovered a theory called learned helplessness. In this study presented the dogs with a tone followed by a harmless, but painful electric shock One group of dog was harnessed so they could not escape the shock. The others were free to escape the shock When unharnessed, the previously harnessed dogs still did not attempt to escape the shock Learned helplessness - the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past. This theory is often attributed to human behaviors/diagnoses such as depression, learning difficulties (I’m bad at math, I CAN’T do it), and cyclical destructive behaviors such as abusive relationships IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT: DEAN FOR A DAY ASSIGNMENT APPLYING LEARNING CONCEPTS HOMEWORK Practice Quiz: Page 203 Article: Read and Review in Notebook “The Psychology of Spanking” (Link to Article on website) Article Review should include 3 parts: Summary: What is the article about? Analysis: What is the POINT of the article? Why is it relavent Synthesis: How is this information related to concepts we are learning in class? Explain DO NOW CHAPTER 5.11: OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING WHAT OCCURS IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING, INCLUDING FINDINGS FROM BANDURA’S CLASSIC BOBO DOLL STUDY AND THE FOUR ELEMENTS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING? BANDURA AND THE BOBO DOLL Bandura’s famous study involved having a preschool aged child in a room in which the experimenter and a model interacted with toys in the room in front of the child. (Bandura et al 1961) In one condition the model interacted with the toy in a non-aggressive manner. In the other, the model became very aggressive toward the doll When child was left alone to play with the doll, children who witnessed aggressive behaviors imitated the same aggressive behaviors towards the doll OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Observational learning - learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior. Learning/performance distinction - referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior. FOUR ELEMENTS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 1. ATTENTION To learn anything through observation, the learner must first pay attention to the model. 2. MEMORY The learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as remembering the steps in preparing a dish that was first seen on a cooking show. 3. IMITATION The learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model. 4. MOTIVATION Finally, the learner must have the desire to perform the action. (An easy way to remember the four elements of modeling is to remember the letters AMIM, which stands for the first letters of each of the four elements). OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING LAB ACTIVITY We will be watching a series of videos that HOMEWORK Learning project due next class: January 19th (B) and January 20th (A) Notes chapter 5.12 (from book, not included on powerpoint) ACE Vocab 5.10-5.12