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Consultative Draft, V5 November, 2016 A GOOS Project Contributing Authors & Affiliations (to be added) Physical/Climate GregoryC.Johnson PatrickHeimbach BernadetteSloyan Carbon/Biogeochemistry TosteTanhua RikWanninkhof Biodiversity/Ecosystems AntjeBoetius LisaA.Levin MyriamSibuet TheDOOSConsultativedraftisavailabletoallmembersofthe deep-oceanscientificandregulatorycommunityforreview,and weencourageinput. TheReporthasalsobeenpostedonlineforyourreviewand comment:http://www.deepoceanobserving.org Weaskthatyouprovidethefollowinginyourresponses: • Nameand/oraffiliation(pleasemakeanoteifyouprefer toremainanonymous) • Linereferencenumberalongwithcommentorsuggested change • Generalcommentsonthereportcontentand/orstructure • Contactinformationshouldyourcommentsrequirefurther discussion By4October2016weaskthatyouemailyourcommentsto: [email protected] Thiscommunityinputwillbeusedtoguidetheagendaand discussionsattheGlobalDOOSWorkshop7-9December2016. TableofContents INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................0 WhyDeepOceanObserving?...........................................................................................................0 ClimateChange......................................................................................................................................1 GrowingHumanPresence.....................................................................................................................2 MethodologyandStructureofReport..............................................................................................4 PARTONE:SocietalRationaleandScienceChallenges........................................................................7 ClimateandPhysicalObservations...................................................................................................7 High-LevelMandates.............................................................................................................................8 ScienceChallenges.................................................................................................................................8 CarbonandBiogeochemistryObservations....................................................................................10 High-LevelMandates...........................................................................................................................10 ScienceChallenges...............................................................................................................................11 BiodiversityandEcosystemObservations.......................................................................................13 High-LevelMandates...........................................................................................................................13 ScienceChallenges...............................................................................................................................14 PARTTWO:RequirementsSetting....................................................................................................16 ClimateandPhysicalEOVs..............................................................................................................17 MaturePhase......................................................................................................................................17 PilotPhase...........................................................................................................................................18 ConceptPhase.....................................................................................................................................18 CarbonandBiogeochemistryEOVs.................................................................................................18 MaturePhase......................................................................................................................................18 BiodiversityandEcosystemEOVs...................................................................................................20 MaturePhase......................................................................................................................................20 PilotPhase...........................................................................................................................................20 ConceptPhase.....................................................................................................................................21 PARTTHREE:DeploymentandMaintenance....................................................................................23 Programs,Platforms,Networks......................................................................................................24 Mature.................................................................................................................................................24 Concept................................................................................................................................................26 Sensors,ProcessesandTechniques................................................................................................26 PhysicalandClimateObservations......................................................................................................27 CarbonandBiogeochemistryObservations........................................................................................28 BiodiversityandEcosystemObservations...........................................................................................29 PARTFOUR:DataandInformationProducts....................................................................................30 BenefitsofanOpenDataPolicy.............................................................Error!Bookmarknotdefined. DataandInformationProducts..............................................................Error!Bookmarknotdefined. TheRoleofModels........................................................................................................................33 PARTFIVE:StrategicRoadmap........................................................................................................34 Page 1 References....................................................................................................................................36 AppendixA:AuthorsandContributors.............................................................................................46 AppendixB:ReportMethodology....................................................................................................47 AppendixC:DraftStrategyTimeline.................................................................................................49 AppendixD:DraftEOVTemplate.....................................................................................................50 AppendixE:Sustainedobservatoriesandobservingstations(SeeSeparateTable)...........................51 AppendixF:OpenDataPolicyStatement.........................................................................................52 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 1 INTRODUCTION 2 Deep Ocean Observing Strategy 3 Objective 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Thisreportisdesignedtodevelopforcommunityconsiderationastatementofrequirementsandaninitial strategyforsustainedglobaldeepoceanobservations.TheDeepOceanObservingStrategy(DOOS)isbeing developedundertheauspicesoftheGlobalOceanObservingSystem(GOOS),andwillembraceobservations below200m.Thisdefinitionofdeepembracesthevariedneeds(andgaps)ofthephysical,chemicaland biologicalscientificcommunities.Inparticularitrecognizestheecosystemchangesthatoccurbelow200m andthegrowingimportanceofthe200-2000mmesopelagic/bathyalzone.ThestrategyconsidersallEssential 1 OceanVariables(EOVs ),regions,andtechnologies;andinitsfinalformwillidentifyhighpriorityandfeasible actionsforthenext5-10yearsinthedeepsea.Ultimatelythisdocumentisintendedtoprovideaconsensus reportthataidsinindividualandnationalfundraisingeffortsforelementsinsupportofadeepocean observingstrategy. 14 WhyDeepOceanObserving? 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Thankstotheadvancesintechnologyandobservingtechniquesthedeepoceanisnolongerconsidereda homogeneous,dark,staticenvironmentorevenarealmofrelic,“fossillike”fauna.Keytechnical developmentshavefacilitatedtheinvestigationofdeep-sealife,inparticular,thediscoveryofnew ecosystemsandthefindingofhighlydiversedeepseafloorhabitats(Ramirez-Llodraetal.2010;RexandEtter 2010).Throughdirectandtargetedobservations,deep-seasubmersibles,remotelyoperatedvehicles(ROVs), autonomousunderwatervehicles(AUVs),towedinstruments,andfree-vehicle‘landers’equippedwith camerasandbiogeochemicalsensorshavechangedourviewandunderstandingofthediversityandactivityof 22 thedeep-searealm(LevinandSibuet2012). 23 Overthepastthreedecades,wehavebeenable 24 tostudycoldseeps,deep-watercoraland 25 associatedreefs,canyons,upwellingmargins, 26 oxygenminimumzones,organicfalls, 27 hydrothermalvents,basalticridges,seamounts, 28 nodulefields,trenchesandothertypesof 29 environments.Developmentsinmarineimaging 30 andacousticshavedramaticallyrevisedour 31 understandingofthediversityandabundanceof 32 lifeatmidwaterdepths(Robison2009,Irigoien 33 etal2014).Someofthebenthicfeatureshave 34 showncharacteristicsofdistinctivespatial 35 heterogeneityatscalesofmeterstokilometers 36 (Levinetal.2010). 37 Thedeep-seaisnotstaticorevenstable.Avarietyofenvironmentalfactorscontributetostructuringdeep-sea geological,physical,andchemicalfeatures,aswellasbiologicalcommunities.Process-basedecologicalstudies 38 39 1 EOVs are defined by the Global Ocean Observing System Framework as effective in effective in addressing the overall GOOS Themes – Climate, Real-Time Services, and Ocean Health. variables must be capable of being observed or derived on a global scale, and must be technically feasible using proven, scientifically understood methods. Generating and archiving data on the variable must be affordable, mainly relying on 63 Climate Change 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 Theoceanisthememoryoftheclimatesystem.Forthesametemperaturechangeandsamevolume,itstores onethousandtimesmoreheatthantheatmosphere.Thedeepocean(definedhereas>200m)contains50 timesmorecarbonthantheatmosphere.Oceanseafloorsedimentsserveasanarchiveofpastproductivity andclimateregimes,bothonlandandinthesea.Deepoceantracerdistributionsprovideoneoftheveryfew meansofunderstandingpastoceanicflowfieldsandassociatedclimatehistories.Informationaboutthedeep oceanisrequiredforthescientificunderstandingoftheEarthSystemandimproveddecisionsbypolicy makerssuchasorganizedundertheWorldClimateResearchProgramme(WCRP),WorldMeteorological Organization(WMO),andUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)andits associatedsciencebody,theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC). 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 Theoceanshavetakenupabout93%oftheenormousamountofthermalenergyaccumulatingintheEarth's climatesystemoverthelastfourdecades(IPCC,2013;Rheinetal.2013).Thesparsearrayofglobalrepeat hydrographicdatacollectedbyCLIVARandGO-SHIPsuggeststhatthedeepoceanbelowthe2000-msampling depthofcoreArgo,isanappreciablecontributortothatthermalenergystoragesincethe1990s,whenWorld OceanCirculationExperiment(WOCE)establishedahigh-qualitybaselinefromwhichchangescanbe measured.Understandinghowmuchheattheglobeistakingupandwhere(howdeepintheocean)isvitalto understandinghowmuch-andhowfasttheEarthwillwarmwithincreasedgreenhousegasconcentrations. 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 Deepoceansalinityisalsovariable,withobservedfresheninginthebottomwatersaroundAntarcticain recentdecades(PurkeyandJohnson2013),possiblyreflectingincreasedratesofglacialmeltandperhaps changesinthesouthernlimboftheglobalMeridionalOverturningCirculation(MOC).Measuringand understandingchangesinthisglobalcirculationfeatureisachallengethatisbeingundertakenintheNorth Atlantic,butdatacollectedoutsidethatoceanbasinsuggestssubstantialvariationsintheportionsaround Antarctica.Wealsoneedtocaptureshort-termcomponentsofthesechangeswhichreflectorinducemajor shiftsinthecirculationregime,suchasextremedensewaterconvectionevents,largestormsandhurricane effectsonverticalmixing. 1 overthepastthreedecadeshavedemonstratedthatthedeep-seaisfarfrombeingadormant,buffered system,itrespondsimmediatelyintimeandspacetoarangeofpowerfuldriversandpressures.Theseinclude pulsesofsinkingorganicmatter,pollutionbyhydrocarbonsandlittering,hydrothermalemissionsdrivenby volcanicactivityormantle-rockalteration,gasescapeandmudextrusionfromburiedmethanereservoirsand hydrates,largeorganicfallssuchascarcassesandmassivewooddebris,turbiditycurrents,shiftsin hydrography,stratification,ventilationandoceancurrents,,changesintemperature,oxygen,pH/CO2and salinityconditions(Gloveretal.2010,LevinandLeBris2015).Today,wearefarfromunderstandingthese changesandtheresultingtypeanddegreeofphysicalandbiologicalturnover.Neitherdoweunderstandthe spatialandtemporalscalesthatjustbegintobemademoreaccessiblebytheuseofnewtechnologies. ScientificevidencenowsupportsthehypothesisthatEarth’sdynamics,includingglobalchange,areaffecting thedeepsea,andthatthedeep-searealmshouldbeobservedasacomponentoftheEarthsystem,asare surfaceenvironments.Furthermore,scientificprinciplesofecosystemassessmentandclimateobservations shouldbeimplementedcompletewithaconceptofoceanobservationthatincludesthedeepsea. Understandingofthisvastrealmunderpinsourabilitytoaddresskeychallengessuchassustainable managementofmarineresources,understandingoceanecosystemservicesinachangingclimate,and improvingearlywarningforgeo-hazards. Thedeepseaisimpactedbyabroadrangeofprocesseswhicharecausedbynatural,direct,andindirect anthropogenicdrivers.Thereismuchtolearninunderstandingtherelativerolesofthedifferentphysical, chemical,andbiologicaldriversandprocessesinducingchangesinthedeepocean.Recentstudiessuggest thatratherthanviewingthedeepseaasonevastecosystem,wehavetocomprehendthedimensionsofits hydrographical,biogeochemical,andthebiogeographicalprovincesoforganismsandtheirhabitats. Page 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 Oceanwarminginducesdeclinesinoxygensolubility,increasesthermalandsalinitystratificationwhich reducesventilation,andincreasesrespiration.Togethertheseareproducingoceandeoxygenationglobally (Keelingetal.2010)thisismostsevereinintermediatewatersof100-1000m(Strammaetal.2010;Helmet al.2011).Furthermore,warmingandfresheningofseawatercausesariseinsealevels.Hencethedeepocean temperatureandsalinitychangesoriginatingintheNorthAtlanticandSouthernOceancontributetosealevel variations,globallyandregionally.Tofullyunderstandsealevelriseandthesealevelbudget,itisnecessaryto routinelyandgloballymeasuretemperatureandsalinitythehalfoftheoceanvolumenotcurrentlysampled bycoreArgo;theoceandeeperthan2000m.Measurementsofoxygenandthecarbonatesystematthese deptharealsocriticalforunderstandingdeepoceanmitigationofandadaptationtoclimatechange. 118 119 120 121 122 Geo-hazardsandavarietyofgeological‘events’thattakeplaceinthedeepoceancanposehazardsto humans.Manyofthesearisefromtectonicactivitythattriggersearthquakes,massiveslidesandturbidity currents,volcaniceruptions,andtsunamis.Methanedissociationandmudvolcanoeruptionscandestabilize marginsediments,initiatedebrisandliquefiedsandflowswhichmayposehazardstodeepinfrastructure(oil andgasrigs,cables)(Maslinetal.2010). 123 Growing Human Presence 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 Duetotheoverexploitationofresourcesonlandandtherisingcostsassociatedwiththeiruse,therearean emergingnumberofpotentialeconomicopportunitiesforindustriesfocusedontheuseofdeep-searesources (Ramirez-Llodraetal.2011).Asthesevaryinscopeandfeasibility,theirimpactneedstobemonitored througharangeofobservationtechniques.Amongtheseactivitiesaremarinecapturefisheries,bioprospecting,oilandgasextraction,andminingforseabedminerals(Mengerinketal.2014): MarineCaptureFisheries:Deep-waterfisherieswereestablishedinthe1960sand1970s,withthe developmentofnewandmorerobustfishinggear.Sincethattime,fishingdepthshaveincreasedand itisnowroutinetocollectfishbelow1000mdepth(WatsonandMorato2013).Thesefisheriesare concentratedinareasthathavesomeofthegreatestbiologicalsignificanceinthedeepsea. Seamounts,coldwatercoralreefs,continentalslopesincludingcanyons,areamongthedeep-sea habitatswherecurrentsandhighsurfaceproductivityinsureanattractivefoodsupply.Thisconstant CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 2 TheDeepWesternBoundaryCurrents(DWBCs)oftheMOCarepartofaglobal-scaledeepoceancurrent system.RoughlyequivalentvolumesofdensewatersinkintheNorthAtlanticandAntarcticlimbsoftheMOC andaretransportedtodistantoceanbasins.Despitetheirimportance,long-termrepeateddirectvelocity observationsoftheDWBCsintheAtlanticexistonlyinafewlocationsintheNorthAtlantic.Adecadeofdata fromatrans-Atlanticmooredarrayat26.5°NrevealssignificantvariabilityoftheMOCandDWBCfromweekly todecadaltime-scalesincludinganoverallreductionintheMOCwithtime(SrokoszandBryden2015).The strongDWBCtransportvariabilityandthesignificantvariabilitythatstillexistsinthedeepoceanevenwhen integratedacrosstheentirewesternbasinouttotheMid-AtlanticRidge,demonstratesclearlythatthedeep layerisquiteenergetic(Drijfhoutetal.2011)andreinforcestheconceptthatthebasin-scaleMOC-salt feedbackdetermineswhetherthethermohalinecirculationisstableorunstable.Morerobustestimatesof MOC-trendscanbemadebycombiningsectionsintheNorthandSouthAtlantic,thesignofsaltfluxat35°S canbeusedtodeterminethestabilityoftheMOC;slightchangesinpositionofdeepboundarycurrentscan havelargeimpacts.Forexample,warmingduetoshiftsintheGulfStreamovertheNWAtlanticmarginmay bedissociatingburiedgashydratesandreleasingmassivequantitiesofmethane(PhrampusandHornbachet al.2012)withconsequencesformicrobialandanimalproduction(BoetiusandWenzhoffer2013).Drawdown NorthAtlanticdeepwaterwithdecliningpHandsubsequenttransportbyboundarycurrentsexposesdeepwatercoralsandotherecosystemstooceanacidification(Gehlenetal.2015).Conversely,calcifyingorganisms arefoundinareasbelowtheirmineralsaturationstate(Lebratoetal.2016)andsomayprovidecluestothe limitsofpossibleadaptation.Inthisregard,deepbasinsofsemi-enclosedseasmaybeconsideredatthe leadingedgeofclimatechange-drivenmajorecologicalshifts(e.g.BalticSea,CariacoSea,MediterraneanSea) andleadtounexpectedsynergies. Page 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 3 supplyoffoodresultsinlargefishaggregationsthathaveconsequentlyattractedfishers.Deep-water trawlingleavesamassiveenvironmentalfootprint,andnowcoversnearlyone-fifthofthecontinental slopes.Itisespeciallydestructiveinareasofvulnerablehabitatssuchascoralsandspongereefs. Deep-seafishoftenhavelifespansof100yearsormore(Norseetal.2012)whereascoralsmaylive forthousandsofyears,makingrecoveryfromfisherydisturbanceexceedinglyslow.Asearlyas1997, MerrettandHaedrich(1997)consideredsomedeep-seafishstocksasnonrenewableresources. Additionally,theseareasarealsocharacterizedasrichbenthicfaunahabitats(Buhl-Mortensenetal. 2010),wherevideo,photographic,andacousticsurveyshaverevealedevidenceofdamagetothese fragilehabitatsduetofishing(Puigetal.2012). Bioprospecting:Thehighdegreeofbiodiversityfoundintheoceanscreatesopportunitiesfor collectingmarineorganismsforasuiteofpharmaceutical,healthandindustrialapplications.The deepsearepresentsavastgeneticreservoir,offeringmanyavenuesforindustrialandpharmaceutical interestandpotentialexploitationasthissectorhasbeengrowing(Arnaud-Haondetal.,2011; Broggiatoetal.,2014a).Majoropportunitiesinthedeepseastemfromthediversepopulationsof microbesinhabitatswhichhaveadaptedtoextremeenvironmentalconditionssuchashydrothermal vents(hot,acidorstronglyalkaline,basic,highconcentrationofcoldwaters)andpolarwaters (freezing),wherethesephysiologicaladaptationshaveresultedinnovelpropertiesthatmayproveto bearesourceforindustrialbiotechnologyandevenclimateremediation(Mahoneetal.2015).The potentialfortheharvestofbiologicallyformedcompoundsandgeneticresourcesoccursinareas suchascold-watercoralreefs,spongegardens,seamounts,coldseeps,organicfallsand hydrothermalvents.Thereisalsothepotentialfordiscoveryofnovelbiomaterialswithmilitaryand industrialapplications,(e.g.,Yaoetal.2010). OilandGasExtraction:Theextractionofhydrocarbonenergyfromtheoceanshasmoved progressivelydeeperinrecentdecades(Merrieetal.2014).Oilandgasexploitationisroutineindeep watersto3000m,andextractionfromreservoirsdeepbelowtheseabedwillcontinuetoincrease. Whiletheexplorationofgashydratedepositsmayoffernewresearchopportunities,higherpricesfor ocean-basedenergyareexpectedtomakeexploitationoftheseresourcesindeeperareas economicallyviable.However,asshownbytheDeepWaterHorizonaccident,alongwithdeep-sea drillingaresignificantsafety,technological,andenvironmentalrisks(Merrieetal.2014,Cordesetal. 2016). WasteDisposal:Thedeep-oceanisnowtherecipientofmanydifferentformsofhumanwaste. Terrestrialminetailingsfulloftoxicmetalsandcompoundsareroutinelydisposedofondeep margins(at500-1000mordeeper).Thisactivityoccursat14locationsin6countries,andoftengoes unmonitored(Ramirez-Llodraetal.2015).Plasticsarepresentthroughoutmuchofthedeepseain manysizesandconfigurations,andorganicandpharmaceuticalcontaminantsarerecordedindeepseaspecieswhenmeasured(Ramirez-Llodraetal.2011).Earthquakesandtsunamis,typhoonand hurricanesreleaselargeamountsofterrestrialandcoastaldebristhatoftenendupinthedeep ocean.Theseaccidentalinputsaddtothemostpersistentfractionofpollutants(e.g.POP,plastics) thataccumulateindeepwaters.Majoraccidentsthatreleaseradioactivewaste,oilspills,andother contaminantsincreasinglythreatendeep-waterecosystems. EmergingEnergySources:Intandemwiththeexploitationofoilandgasreservescomesincreased pressuretofindalternativesourcesofenergy,andtoremovefossilfuel-derivedgreenhousegases fromtheatmosphere.Theoceanoffersthepotentialforrenewableoceanenergies,suchaswave, geothermal,andocean-thermalsources.OptionssuchasOTEC(OceanThermalEnergyConversion) involvethegenerationofthermalgradientscreatedbybringingupcolddeepoceanwatersintowarm surfacewaters.Duetothecreationoffoodandfreshwaterasbyproductstheseapplicationsgrowing ininterestintropicalandsubtropicalwaters(Fujitaetal.2011). Page 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 MiningforSeabedMinerals:Mineralsoccurontheseabedinavarietyofformsthatincludemetals (Mn,Ni,Co,Cu,Zn,Pb,Ag,Au,Ptandrareearths)increasinglyvaluedforindustrialandsocietaluses. Amongthese,polymetallicnodules,seafloormassivesulfides(SMS),andcobaltcrustsarebeing targetedforexplorationininternationalwaters(Levinetal.2016).TheInternationalSeabed Authority(ISA)hasawarded27contractsto19countriesforexplorationintheAtlantic,Pacificand IndianOceans,howeverin2016thereisnocommercialexploitationyetunderway.Otherrelevant mineralsofpotentialcommercialinterestincludephosphoritesfoundinpresentorpastupwelling zones,metalliferoussludgeintheRedSea,andrareearthmetals,whichhavebeenfoundinthe sedimentsandnodulesofthecentralPacificOcean.Numerousquestionsexistaboutthe environmentalimpactoflargescale,andcommercialminingandhowtomanagethese(Leetal, 2016);answeringmanyofthesewillrequirelong-termobservations. 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 Thenextgenerationoftoolsandtechniquesforobservingthedeepoceanwillneedtobedevelopedto addressexistinguncertaintiesaboutpatternsofdiversity,deepoceanresponsestoclimatechange,and humanimpact.Speciescompositionandthestructureofdeep-seacommunitiesareinfluencedbymany factorssuchasshorttermnaturaleventslikepulsesoforganicmatter(influencingrecruitmentsperiods),by longtermchangesofdecadalandinterdecadalscalesinoceanicpatterns(PDO,NAO,andElNiñoSouthern Oscillation(ENSO),e.g.Smithetal.2009)whichcauselargescalechangesintemperatureandfoodsupply, andbydrasticchangesduetotectonicorgeologicalprocesses(suchasunderwaterearthquakesandundersea volcanoes).Inaddition,uncertaintiesassociatedwithindirectanddirecthuman-induceddriversofchangein thedeepseaalsoneedtobetakenintoconsideration.Theseincludeconsequencesofoceanwarmingon circulation,chemicalcontent(e.g.,O2,nutrients,pH,CO2),andproductivityandexportfluxes,andlocal hydrodynamicconditions,alongwiththeimpactsofresourceextraction(e.g.fish,gasandoil,minerals),waste disposal,lightandnoise(e.g.associatedwithshiptraffic,energyandminingoperations),orotherpotential risks(e.g.seabedCO2storage). 223 MethodologyandStructureofReport 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 Thisreportdevelopsastatementofrequirementsdesignedtoleadtoaninitialstrategyforsustainedglobal deepoceanobservations;consideringoceanvariables,regions,andtechnologieswhichwillextracthigh impactandfeasibleactions.ThestatementisframedinalignmentwiththeFrameworkforOceanObserving (Lindstrometal.2012).TheFrameworkapproachcontendsthattomaintainaglobaloceanobservingsystem thatisfit-for-purpose,theoutputsofthesystemmustproperlyaddresstheissuesthatdrovetheoriginalneed tomeasureanoceanvariable,andestablishafeedbackloopofassessmentthatmustbemaintainedby communityagreed-uponprocesses. 231 232 233 234 Inordertoestablishthisconcertedcommunityeffort,theFrameworkalsorecommendsthatoceanobserving activitiesbeorganizedaroundcommunity-definedandselectedEssentialOceanVariables(EOVs).AnEOVis definedasavariableoraspectoftheoceanthattheoceanobservingcommunityagreesmustbemeasuredin ordertofurtherscientificunderstandingoftheoceanandEarthsystemsandtheirimpactonsociety. 235 236 Animportantcaveatrelatedtotheuseoftheterm“essential”:InthecontextofEOVs“essential”isnottobe confusedwith“minimal,”ashasbeenusedindefiningbaselinerequirementsforsomeobservingprojects, CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 4 GeoengineeringandCarbonStorage:TherapidriseinatmosphericCO2anditsmanyconsequences haveledsocietytoconsiderahostofdirectinterventionslooselytermedgeoengineering.Some involveusingofthedeep-seaasastoragevenue(e.g.forCO2).Deep-seadepositionofbio-carbonlike agriculturewasteandcharcoalisalsocurrentlyunderconsideration.Others,suchassolarradiation managementwouldaffectthedeepsealessindirectlybutwouldeventuallydosothroughchangesin MOCaswellastheorganicandinorganicbiologicalpumps.Retro-actionsonclimatehoweverrequire thoroughinvestigations.Togetherwithadverseeffectsonbiotacomesapotentialreductionofyet overlookeddeep-seacarbonpumps(e.g.Rothetal.2014;Higgsetal.2014);thereleaseof greenhousegassessuchasmethaneandN2Odeservecarefulattention. Page 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 TheFrameworkfurthersuggeststhecommunityneedstoengageinongoingdialogtodefinethe measurementrequirementsofanEOV,aswellastheobservationalelements(technologiesandtechniques), andthedataandinformationproductsrequiredtomeetuserneeds.Inmakingtheseassessments,the communityisaskedtoevaluatetherequirements,observationalneeds,anddataanddataproductsaccording totheirreadinesslevels. AssuggestedaccordingtotheFrameworkorsystemsapproach,thecriteriaforevaluatingnewcomponents forpossibleinclusionintotheglobaloceanobservingsystemwillbeintermsoftheirreadinesslevel.These levelsareaddressedinthreebroadcategories:concept,pilotandmature.Duringtheconceptphase,ideasare articulatedandpeer-reviewed.Duringthepilotphase,aspectsofthesystemaretestedandmadereadyfor globalscaleimplementation.Atmaturity,theybecomeasustainedpartoftheglobaloceanobservingsystem. Foreachcomponentofthesystemrequirements,observations,anddataprojectswillneedtobematured basedonoceansciencecommunitypeer-review,testing,andagreementonbestpractices. Thisreportexaminestheneedsofthree broadandinteractingdisciplineswithin oceanobservingcommunities,theglobal climateandphysicalprocesscommunity,the carbonandbiogeochemicalcommunity,and theecosystemsandbiodiversitycommunity. Itarticulatescommonareasofneedand addressrelevantobservationscalesthat requireintegrationacrossthese communities.Itexploresstrategiesand tacticsforfurthercoordinationandpotential collaboration.Byaligningneedsaccordingto acommonnomenclatureandagreeingto thetermsthatwillresultinanoptimally functioningsystem,thecommunityisbetter abletoexamineandagreeonareaswhere sustainedactivitiesarejustified,andwhere actionsforimprovementormaturationareneeded. InPartOneofthisreporteachofthecommunities,listedabove,exploresthesocietalissuesthatdrivethe needforsustaineddeepoceanobserving.Thereportthenprovidesanoverviewofthescientificquestions thathavebeenformulatedinrelationtotheseissues. PartTwopresentstheinitialarticulationofEOVsforeachofthethreecommunities.Thisdiscussionisframed inthecontextofthereadinessleveloftheRequirementsandwherethereisaneedforfurthercommunity buy-inand/orfurtherdefinitionorrefinementoftheEOV. PartThreeprovidesanoverviewoftheobservingelements(sensors,platforms,andnetworks)currentlyin place,whereplatformsandtechnologiesaremeetingtheneedsofthesystem,andwherethereisaneedfor improvementordevelopment. CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 5 programs,missions,platforms,andnetworks.Intheseinstancestheuseoftheterm“minimal”andinsome cases“essential”referstothemeasurementsrequiredtomeetthescientificgoalsofageographicand/or oceanphenomenonfocused-system.Hereweaddresswhatthesciencecommunityagreesare“essential” oceanvariables(EOVs)tobemeasuredinordertoaddresssocietalandenvironmentalpressures.Basedon thisrationalethescientificanddecision-making-communityagreethattheseshouldbeapartofaglobal, sustainedoceanobservingsystem. Page 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 6 PartFourdiscussesguidelinesforadeep-oceandataandinformationpolicyandmanagementphilosophy.This sectionexplorestheimpactandbenefitoftheopenandfreeexchangeofdatatoinformationproductsand models.Itprovidesexamplesofhowshareddatabenefitsthescientificcommunitiesandgeneratesan opportunityforsynergisticdiscoveriesacrossthesystem. PartFiveWillberedraftedaftertheDecember2016DOOSworkshoptobeheldatScrippsInstitutionof Oceanography.Itwillexplorestrategiesforachievingintegrationthroughtheidentificationoftheexpert panelsandimplementationteamsthataremindfuloftheneedsofthedeep-oceanobservingsystemoverall. Recommendationswillbemadeinthecontextofwheresciencequestionsandsocietalneedsarecurrently beingmetandwherethereareneedsforexpansionandimprovement,includingneededredundancyand resilienceofobservingelements. Page 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 303 Introduction 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 TheunderstandingandmonitoringofnaturalandanthropogenicEarthprocessesthatcontributetoclimate cannotbeaccomplishedbyasingleprogram,agency,orcountry.Onlythroughinternationalcooperationcan wecollectandsharedataandknowledgeessentialforincreasingourunderstandingofEarth’sclimateandthe ecosystemsadaptedtoit.Theseactionsareessentialtoprovidetheclimateinformationrequiredbythe UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC),withtheobjective“tostabilize greenhousegasconcentrationsintheatmosphereatalevelthatwouldpreventdangerousanthropogenic interferencewiththeclimatesystem”. Inmostregionsoftheworld’socean(muchlessthedeepocean),seafloorhabitats,currents,waterproperties, mixingrates,andtheirvariationsarenotwellknown.Increasedspatialandtemporalcoverageforaccurate measurementsofthevelocity, temperature,andsalinityofthe deepoceanwillincreaseour understandingoftheocean’s circulationsystemofsurface anddeepcurrentsconnecting oceanbasinssometimestermed theMOC.Muchistobelearned abouttheMOC,itsimpacton thelong-termvariabilityof warmingandfreshening,its contributiontosealevelrise,to deeppatternsofmixing,and theinfluenceofdeep-ocean geothermalprocessesonthe MOCanddeep-water properties.Anincreased understandingofthiscirculation systemwillplayanimportant roleinourabilitytoconstrain climatemodels.Modelsrequireknowledgeoftransportandmixingprocessesathighregionalandtemporal resolutionandatalldepths.Theirpredictionsareacriticalprerequisitetotestinghypothesesrelatedtopast, present,andfutureclimatechange.Thesemodeloutputsarevitaltoimproveddecadal-to-century,globaland regionalprojectionsofvariationsintemperature,precipitation,andsealevel. 339 ClimateandPhysicalObservations 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 Deep-oceancurrents,deep-reachingmesoscaleeddies,aswellasdeepmixingcontributetotheMOCandthe globalredistributionoftemperature,salinity,andotherwaterpropertiesincludingnutrients,oxygen,and carbon.Deep-oceanwarmingandfresheningareimportantconsequences(andpredictors)ofclimatechange, andinfluencepatternsofsealevelrise.Theunderstandingofclimatevariabilityandoceanphysicssets stringentrequirementsforupperoceanobservations.Theserequirementsareevenmoreexactinginthe deeperocean;understandingdeepcirculation,waterproperties,andtheirvariabilityrequiresknowledgeof spatialpatternsofmixingincludingtheinfluenceofseafloortopography,andeventheinfluencesof geothermalenergyfluxesattheseafloor. CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 Page 302 7 PART ONE Societal Rationale and Science Challenges 301 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 Informationabouttheinfluenceoftheoceanonclimateisattheheartofwhatareoftenreferredtoas climateservices.Improvementoftheseservicesrequiresinformationregardingchangesinthedeepocean circulation,itsimpactonsealevel,oxygen,andtheup-takeofCO2,heat,andfreshwater.Todayobservations arecriticalforthegenerationofclimateinformationandthecreationofafoundationforeffectivedecisionmakingandsubsequentpolicy.Sealevelriseisoneofthemostimmediateandinexorableresultsofclimate variabilityandchange,andmayposeseverethreatsformanynations.Criticaltothemitigationofthese threatsareaccurateglobalandregionalprojectionsofsealevel.Policymakersrelyonclimatescenario informationcompiledbythesciencecommunity.Todaydecision-makersregularlyrelyonprojectionsfromthe sciencecommunity’scoupledclimatemodels.Researchersarecurrentlydevelopingseasonaltodecadal forecastsusingthesemodelsinitializedwithcurrentconditionsandincreasinglyincludingbaroclinicinternal tidalforcing. Sustainedobservationandanalysisofthedeepoceananditschangesarenecessaryforclimateresearch. Deepoceanstudiesarecentraltoourunderstandingoftheclimatesystem.Ongoingresearchisrequired regardingtheEarthsystem’senergyimbalance,sealevelrise,theglobalhydrologicalcycle,icecover,dust input,transportoflandmaterials,andotherinteractionssuchasthoseamongtheoceans,atmosphere,and land,andthecryosphere.Centraltoseveralofthesetopicsaretheoceantransportofheatandfreshwater, deep-watermassformation,andoceantransports. Temperature,salinity,carbonspecies,oxygen,andotheroceanmeasurementsareinsufficientinspatialand temporalcoverage.Manyoftheseparametersarepresentlysparselyandinfrequentlymeasuredonaglobal scale,primarilybyshipbornerepeathydrography(Talleyetal.2016).Thissituationholdsespeciallytrueat depthsbelow2000m,whichisthecurrentlimitofcoreArgofloats(i.e.thosemeasuringonlytemperature andsalinityto2000mdepth),althoughtherearenowasmallnumberofDeepArgofloatsthatsampleto6000 m.Thus,despiteadvancesoverthelast20to40years,thebudgetsforglobalsealevelrelatedtocontributions fromglobalheatcontentchangesandtheadditionofmassthroughmeltingland-icearenotadequately constrainedbydeepoceanobservations.IftheWorldClimateResearchProgram(WCRP)andsimilar organizationsaretorespondtosociety’sneedtobetterunderstandchangesinclimateandprovideimproved estimatesofchangesoverthenextdecade,theexistingobservingsystemmustbeexpandedtoroutinely samplethefulldepthoftheglobalocean. 379 Science Challenges 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 Thereareseveralchallengesfacingthescientificcommunity,relatedtoimproveddecisionmakingandafitfor-purposeobservingsystemwellequippedtoaddresssocietalneeds.Thefirstchallengeistomeasureand understanddeep-oceancirculationandventilationanditsvariability.TheMOCiscomprisedofbottomand deepwatersthatspreadoutfromtheirhighlatitudesources(inthesub-polarNorthAtlanticandaround Antarctica)andreturnflowsoflessdensewater.NearlyequalvolumesofdensewaterssinkintheNorth AtlanticandAntarcticlimbsoftheMOC,andaretransportedtodistantoceanbasins.Repeatedhydrographic sections,mooredinstrumenttime-series,andoceanmodelshaverevealedcirculationvariabilityinthedeep westernboundarycurrentsandMOC(Kouketsuetal.2011;Cunninghametal.2010),whichsuggestthat climatevariabilitymayberapidlycommunicatedtotheglobaldeepoceanviaboundarycurrents(Masudaet al.2010,Heimbachetal.2011).Todaymostofthelong-termobservationsofdeepwesternboundarycurrents areinthewesternAtlanticOcean;moreobservationsinotheroceansarerequiredtoassessdeepocean circulationvariability. Closelyassociatedwithoceancirculationisthemeasurementoftransienttracers(e.g.,CFCsandSF6,tritium, 3 14 He,and C),whichofferanunprecedentedopportunitytostudyoceanventilationanditstimescales(Fine 2011).ThroughtheuseofdirectcarbonobservationsitisdifficulttoseparatethesmallanthropogenicCO componentfromthelargereservoirsofnaturalcarbon.Oceanmeasurementsofnutrients,oxygen,and CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 2 8 High-Level Mandates Page 348 transienttracersareusefulforthatpurpose.Recent,advancedanalytictechniqueswhichpairtransienttracers nowallowscientiststoquantifybetteranthropogenicCO inputintothedeepocean. 2 2 ClosingoftheEarth’senergybudget isvitalinordertoquantifyclimatevariabilityandtoaccuratelymonitor, assess,andpredicthumaninducedclimatechange(e.g.Hansen2005,Wunsch2005,2016,vonSchuckmann etal.2016).TheglobaloceanisbyfarthelargestheatreservoirintheEarthsystem,asitaccountsforthe absorptionofanestimated93%oftheincreaseintotalenergyassociatedwithgreenhousegaswarming (Rheinetal.2013).Recentstudiesbasedonacombinationofobservations(PurkeyandJohnson2010),data assimilation(Kouketsuetal.2011,WunschandHeimbach2014),andmodelsimulations(Katsmanetal.2011, Palmeretal.2011)haveallemphasizedtheimportanceofoceanheatcontentchangesatdepthsbelow2000 m.UnderstandingboththeNorthAtlanticDeepWaterandtheAntarcticBottomWaterformationratesand theirglobalpropertychangesareacriticalformakingassessmentsofglobalheatbudgetdynamicstoinform climatechangepolicy. ChangesoffreshwaterinputintothedeepandbottomwaterformationregionsathighlatitudesofNorth AtlanticandaroundAntarcticareflectchangesintheglobalfreshwaterbalance.Thesechangesdrive variabilityindeepcirculationbyaffectingthepropertiesofdensewatersinkinginboththenorthernand southernlimbsoftheglobalMOCaswellastheabyssalcirculationitself.Repeatedhydrographicobservations indicatethatAntarcticBottomWaterhassignificantlyfreshenedandbecomelessdensesincethelate1960’s (e.g.Rintoul2007)andNorthAtlanticDeepWaterexhibitslargedecadaltemperatureandsalinityvariations (e.g.Yashayaev2007).Thesedeepandabyssalvariationsreflectchangesintheprocessesthatcontrol freshwaterinthehighlatitudes(Carmacketal.2016),namelyevaporationversusprecipitation(Rawlinsetal. 2010),seaiceproductionandexport(Serrezeetal.2006),andglacierandicesheetmelting(Hannaetal. 2013). Accurateunderstandingandprojectionoffuturesealevelchangewillfirstrequirethequantificationand analysisofobservedsealevelchanges,includingdeepoceanstericheightvariability(Ponte2012),warming andfreshening(e.g.,Wunschetal.2007).GlobalMeanSeaLevel(GMSL)riseisalmostcertaintobea devastatingconsequenceofhumaninducedclimatechange.Seawaterwilllikelycontinuetoexpanddueto increasedoceanheatcontent,alongwiththemassadditiontotheoceansassociatedwithmeltingoflandbasedice(e.g.Hannaetal.2013).Sealevelrisewillvarybyregionandinsomeareasitmaybemuchlarger thantheglobalmean,asthereareseveralfactorsinvolved,suchaslateralshiftsinoceancirculation, gravitationaleffectsduetomassredistributions,andpost-glacialchangesinbasingeometry(e.g.,Milneetal. 2009,Stammeretal.2013).Whiledeepoceanwarmingandfresheningalreadyplayanappreciablerolein localsealevelvariability(PurkeyandJohnson2010;Kouketsuetal.2011),itisexpectedthatwarmdeep oceanwaterwillplayanincreasinglyimportantroleinglobalsealevelriseasthewatercolumnwarmsand expandsovercenturiestomillenniainresponsetochangesinEarth’sradiationbudget(e.g.Meehletal.2005). VitaltotheclosureoftheglobalMOCisthestudyofthemixingofmass,heat,saltandothercharacteristics, shiftingupwardacrosswaterpropertyplanesintheabyssalflow(e.g.,FerrariandWunsch,2009,Mashayeket al.2015).Todaythelimitednumberofturbulentmixingestimatesintheabyssaloceanaretheresultof observationsfromspecializedship-basedprofilersthatshowenhancedmixingaboveroughseafloor topography(Polzinetal.1997,St.LaurentandThurnherr,2007).However,inmostinstances,thestrengthof deep-oceanmixinghasbeenestimatedfromrelativelysparselysampledtemperatureandsalinityprofiles (Sloyan2005,JingandWu2010).Observingsystemcapacitywouldbegreatlyenhancedthroughthe Measuring/estimatingallcrossboundaryfluxes,whichthenmustequaltimerateofchangeofinternal storage(acontrolvolume).Fortheearth/ocean,thesurfaceheatfluxesarenotoriouslydifficultto measure(atbest10W/m2;weneed0.1W/m2)so,wedependonmeasuringthechangeinthevolume heatcontentbecauseitis“easier”tomeasureandinferthefluxes. 9 2 Page 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 458 CarbonandBiogeochemistryObservations 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 Thevariabilityandchangeoftransport,turnover,andstorageofinorganicandorganiccarbon,andother elementsinthedeepoceanarecontrolledbyoceanphysics,chemistry,andbiology.Changesincarbon inventoryandfluxesinthedeepoceancanbesignificantlyslowerthanintheupperwatercolumnduetothe spatialseparationfrombiogeochemicalandphysicalforcingnearthesurface.However,inpartduetoitsvast volume,eventhesesmallchangescanhaveanappreciableeffectonglobalbiogeochemicalmassbalances, andthestorageofanthropogeniccarbon.Improvementinthequantificationofbiogeochemicalchangesinthe deepoceanisimperativeinordertounderstandtheEarthsystem,particularlyovercentennialandlonger timescales. 467 High Level Mandates 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 Sustainedobservationofthedeepoceaniscriticalforaplethoraofoperationalactivities,aswellasresearch programsstudyingclimatevariabilityandprediction,andchangesincarboncontent.National,international, andorganizationalstudieshavedeterminedtheneedfordeepoceanobservationswithanemphasisplaced onperiodicobservationsofhydrographicvariables,CO2systemparameters,andchemicaltracersthroughout thewatercolumn. Insupportofthis,theUSCarbonCycleSciencePlan(2011)articulatedtheneedforlarge-scale,systematic observationandstudyoftheinvasionofanthropogeniccarbonintheocean.Thisrequirementhasbeen recognizedinternationallybyanumberofcountrieswhichoccupyareasofdeepoceanstudywhicharenow activelyrecommendingrepeatdeephydrographicobservationsintheseareas;amongthemareAustralia, Canada,France,Germany,Japan,Russia,theUnitedKingdom,andtheUnitedStates. Respondingtothisneed,astandinginternationalrepeathydrographysciencegrouphasbeenassembled undertheCLIVARGlobalSynthesisandObservationsPanel(GSOP),theInternationalOceanCarbon CoordinationProject(IOCCP)andtheSOLAS/IMBERCarbonGroup(SIC).Thisgrouphasadditional endorsementfromCoordinationGroupoftheIOC-WMOJointTechnicalCommissiononOceanographyand MarineMeteorology(JCOMM)andtheGCOS-GOOS-WCRPOceanObservationsPanelforClimate(OOPC).The IOCCPandSIChavejointlycreatedanadvisoryGroupOnSHIP-basedrepeathydrographytheGlobalOcean Ship-basedHydrographicInvestigationProgram(GO-SHIP).Thisgroupbringstogetherinterestsfromphysical hydrography,carbon,biogeochemistry,andotherusersandcollectorsofhydrographicdatasuchasArgoand OceanSITES,todevelopguidelinesandprovideadviceforthedevelopmentofagloballycoordinatednetwork ofsustainedship-basedhydrographicsectionsdesignedtobecomeanintegralcomponentofthesustained globaloceanobservingsystem. CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 10 expandeduseofdeepprofilingfloatsandgliders(Wuetal.2011,Beairdetal.2012),conductingmissionsand measurementsthatbridgethegapbetweentheselimitedship-based,fineandmicrostructureobservationsat specificoceansites. Finally,anotherfactorthatdrivesoceancirculationisthattheEarth’sinteriorsteadilyprovidesheattothe deepoceanthroughtheseafloor.Alongthecrestsofactivemid-oceanridgesystemssuchastheEastPacific -2 Risethisfluxofheatcanreach0.3Wm (Davies,2013).Whilethisenergyisslightcomparedwithsurfaceairseaheatfluxes,modelsoftheabyssalcirculationinsuchregions(JoyceandSpeer1987,HautalaandRiser 1989)haveshownthatupwardconvectivevelocitiesassociatedwithdeepgeothermalheatingcan significantlyalterthedeepflowandinducegyresatscalesofoverathousandkilometers.Eventheatypical -2 abyssalplaingeothermalheatflux,0.05Wm (Davies2013)canhaveaconsiderableeffectontheabyssal circulationandwaterpropertiesinremoteregions(Joyceetal.1986).Modelingstudiessuggestthat backgroundgeothermalheatingmakesasubstantialcontributiontothestructureofthelarge-scaleabyssal circulation,potentiallyalteringthestrengthoftheMOC(Adcroftetal.2001;Emile-GeayandMadec2009)and impactingabyssalheatcontentestimatesfromglobalstateestimationproducts(Piecuchetal.2015). Page 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 Despitewidespreadcommunitysupport,todatehydrographicandbiogeochemicalchangesinthedeepocean below2000mhavenotbeenfullyexplored.Thecompletionofthefirstdecadalsurveyunderauspicesofthe CLIVAR/CO2repeathydrographyprogramisofferingthefirstobservationalglimpseofchangesin biogeochemicalparametersinthedeepoceanonthesetimescales.Thisstudyshowsthatanthropogenicand climatechangesignalsarestartingtomanifestthemselvesatdepth(Talleyetal.2016,Hassounetal.2015). Thechallengeremainsthatevenwithimprovementsintechnologiesandtechniquesmostchangesindeep oceansignalsarestilldifficult-evenimpossibletodetect.InordertoassessCO2changes,duetonatural variabilityversusthosethatarehumaninduced,itisnecessarytofirstobservethenaturallyoccurringchanges relatedbiogeochemicalparameterssuchasoxygen,chlorofluorocarbon,andnaturaltracerssuchasnoblegas saturationstatesandisotopicratiosofcarbonandnitrogen,aswellastheelementsofthecarbonatesystem thatinformonoceanacidification.Observationoftracersandtheoutputofnumericalgeneralcirculation modelssuggestthatmuchofthechangesobservedarecausedbythepenetrationofanthropogenicCO2into thedeepoceanprimarilyfollowingthemajorpathwaysoftheMOC. Generally,modelresultsagreewithobservationstakenabove2000m,howeveratdepththedistributionof biogeochemicalandanthropogenicperturbationsvariablesoftenshowasystematicbiastoward underestimation.Thereforeitisimperativeforthescientificcommunitytoincreaseitsunderstandingofdeepoceantransportandventilationprocessesandassesstheirimpactonthefollowingbiogeochemicalprocesses: • TheamountofanthropogenicCO2storedinthedeepoceanandratesofchange, • Thesedimentationandburialofparticulatecarbonintheseafloor, • Theimpactofchangesintemperature,salinity,andcurrentsinthedeepoceanonbiogeochemical parameters, • TheimpactofincreasinganthropogenicCO2inthedeepoceanonbiogeochemicalparameters, • Thechangesinventilationandcirculationtobeassessedwithtransienttracers, • Thestateanddynamicsofoxygenconsumptionandavailabilityincludingrelativeinfluencesof biogeochemistryandadvection. Todateanimportantconclusionofresearchandprojectsisthatseveralofthesemi-empiricalapproaches usingobservationsandmostmodelingefforts,underestimatethepenetrationofthehuman-inducedclimate signalsandassociatedanthropogeniccarbonloadintothedeepocean.Underestimationfromobservations canbeattributedtotheimprecisionofthebiogeochemicalmeasurementscoupledwiththerelativelysmall signalofCO2,whichleadstoanaprioriassumptionthatdeepwaterdoesnotcontainanthropogeniccarbon. TransienttracerssuchasCFCscanbemeasuredatrelativelygreateraccuracyastheyarenotimpactedby biogeochemicaltransformationswhichconfoundtheinterpretationofchangesandtrendsincarboncontent. However,theutilityoftheseobservationsislimitedbytheiratmosphericreleasehistory,whichtookplace duringthelastapproximately60years.Meanstoextrapolatethefindingsfurtherbackintimehavebeen achievedbymethodssuchastransittimedistributionTTD(Khatiwalaetal.2009)buttheyarebasedonbasic assumptionsoftransportintheoceanthatcannotbevalidated.Furthermore,comparingCFCpenetration resultsfromnumericalmodelscomparedtoobservationssuggestthesamebiasofalackofdeeppenetration witnessedinmanymodels. Eachyearthedeepoceanisrenewedwith2petagramsofcarbonexportedasDissolvedOrganicMatter (DOM),orabout20%oftotalexportproduction.ThisexportedDOMisonlymoderatelyreactive,suchthatitis remineralizedtoCO2atdepthwithinafewdecades.Littleisknownabouthowremineralizationmaychange withtimesincesofewobservationsexist,furtheritisexpectedthattheexportitselfmaybehighlyvariable. TheinitialaccumulationofexportableDOMinthesurfaceocean,andhencetheamountofmaterialavailable forexportatoverturn,isafunctionofsurfaceoceanverticalstratification;themorestratifiedthesystemthe moreofthismaterialthatcanaccumulate.Furthermore,thebiologicalutilizationofDOMatthesurfaceprior CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 11 Science Challenges Page 491 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 12 todeep-oceanexportsetstheliabilityspectrumofDOMexportedtothedeep-ocean.Theturnovertimeof DOMatvaryingdepthswillaffectcarbonsequestration.In-situmeasurementsofDOMconcentrationsand turnoveratin-situtemperatureandpressurearerequiredtoextendunderstandinginthisarea.Theactual exportofDOMtodepthiscontrolledbythestrengthofoceancirculation;themorewatertransportedto depththemoreDOMexported,andthedeepertheventilationandthelongertheperiodforcarbon sequestrationatdepth.Assuch,overturningdynamicsattheoceansurfacehaveastrongimpactonthe exportofDOM;variabilityofDOMatdepthisadirectreflectionofthechangesinthephysicaloceanatdepth. Thefluxofparticulateorganiccarbontothedeep-oceanisacrucialparametertounderstandgivenitsroleas thebiologicalcarbonpumpforatmosphericCO2storageinthedeep-oceanandasaresourcesupplyto benthicenvironments.ParticulateOrganicMatter(POM)isthemainsourceofenergytomostdeep-sealife, and-whenburiedintheseafloor-alsorepresentsarelevantcarbonsinkatgeologicaltimescales.This particulateorganiccarbonfluxwithinthedeepoceanrepresentsanessentialvariabletodetectchangesin sedimentationandenergyavailabilitytothedeepsea. GloballyParticulateOrganicCarbon(POC)fluxintothebathypelagicrealm(>1km)spansseveralordersof -2 -1 magnitude(1-605mmolCm yr )andischaracterizedbyimportantregionaldifferences.Inadditionto generaldifferencesinmagnitudetherearealsostrongdifferencesintheseasonalityofPOCflux.Thisvarying degreeandepisodicnatureofbathypelagicPOMfluxesarelikelytobeimportantfactorsinthestructuringof benthiccommunitiesanddeterminingPOCburialinsediments.Therehavebeennumerouslong-termdeepoceansedimenttrapdeploymentprograms.Animportantfindingfromthesedeploymentsisthatinter-annual variabilitycanbeequalto-orexceed,regionaldifferences(Smithetal.2013,Hensonetal.2015).Thus sustainedregionalobservationsappearnecessarytocharacterizethespatial,seasonalandinter-annual variabilityinbathypelagicfluxcharacteristicsofagivensite.Recentinvestigationsshowthatthecomposition oftheplanktonintheproductivesurfacelayers,andthefood-webstructure,areimportantfactorsindefining therelationshipbetweenproductivityandexportflux(Ruhletal.2014,Soltwedeletal.2016).Thetypeof organismsproducingandgrazingonmattercansignificantlychangethesizesandsinkingspeedsofparticles. ThedecreaseofParticulateOrganicMatter(POM)withdepthisimportantforbothCO2sequestrationand providinganenergysupplytotheabyssalocean.DeeperpenetrationofCO2fromremineralizedPOM increasestime-scalesofsequestrationandisdependentonverticalwatermassstructureanditsventilation dynamics.RemineralizationofPOMasitsinksthroughthewatercolumnmodifiesboththeconcentrationand compositionofcarboninsinkingparticles.InadditiontomagnitudeandtimingofPOCarrivalattheseafloor, the“quality”(composition)ofPOMappearstoberelevantforstructuringthebiomassandturnoverofdeepoceanfauna.AttenuationofPOMwithdepthisfundamentallydrivenbyparticlesettlingvelocitiesand remineralizationrates.Bothofthesefactorsaredependenttosomedegreeonsurfaceandmesopelagic planktonandmicrobialcommunities.AnimportantchallengeforthefutureistotryandunderstandhowPOM inventories,fluxesandremineralizationratesaredistributedacrossdifferentparticlesizeclasses.Following fromthisistheimportanceofdevelopinganunderstandingofhowclimate-drivenchangesinthediversityand structureofsurfaceoceanplanktoncommunitiesmightinfluencethediversityofbenthiccommunities. Specificallytowhatextentchangesinmesopelagic/bathypelagicparticlestructureandremineralizationmay bufferoraccentuatetheclimatesensitivityofpelagic-benthiccoupling.Particledistributionsandfluxes,and theirbiologicalandchemicalcompositionareneededtoaddresstheseimportantgoals. Oxygenisfundamentaltomostofthelifeintheocean,understandingthenatureandcausesofoxygen variationisnecessarytopredictbiologicalresponsestoclimatechange.Oceanwarminginducedchangesin solubility,stratification,ventilation,otherwind-drivenlocalhydrodynamicforces,andrespirationareleading toglobaldeclinesinoceanoxygenation,termeddeoxygenation(Keelingetal.2010).Thisishappeninginthe openoceanandonthecoastandestuaries(LevinandBreitburg2015).Oxygenishighlysensitivetochangesin biomassandrespiration;biogeochemicaldriversinteractwithphysicalforcingtoshapetheoxyscape. Upwellinghasintensified(Sydemanetal.2014)andhypoxicareashaveexpandedatintermediatedepthsin someareasintheAtlanticandPacificandnotinothers(Strammaetal.2010,Wangetal.2015).Circulation Page 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 601 BiodiversityandEcosystemObservations 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 Manyhabitatchangesondeep-seamarginsaretheresultofdestructiveextractionactivities[e.g.,bottom trawling],however,increasingclimate-inducedchangesinhydrographicproperties(temperature,the carbonatesystem,andoxygen),circulation,andproductivitywillalterentiredeep-pelagicandseabed ecosystems(Moraetal.2013,LevinandLeBris,2015).Deep-oceanecosystemsperformkeyregulatory services(carbonburialandnutrientcycling),andsupportingservices(habitat,trophicsupport),aswellas provisioningservicesthatcontributefoodresourcescriticalforthehealthandfutureofplanetEarth(RamirezLlodraetal.2011;Thurberetal.2014).Inaddition,theseenvironmentsprovideavaluablesourceofenergy andholdvastmineral,traceandrareelementreserves.Deep-seaorganisms(mostyettobediscovered)hold theevolutionarynoveltyandgeneticpotentialthatprovideakeytofutureadaptationbylifeintheocean,and havebeguntoprovideuswithvaluablemarinegeneticresources(MGR)ofvalueaspharmaceuticals, enzymaticprocessesandexoticmaterials.Cancertreatments,artificialblood,CO2scrubbers,andnovelarmor areafewexamplesoftheusesforMGR. 614 615 616 617 618 Aninitialglobalapproachtothebiogeographicclassificationofoceanlifeandtohighlighttheneedfor targetedanddistributedoceanobservationwasarticulatedbyinthereportonGlobalOpenOceansandDeep Seabed(GOODs)publishedbytheUnitedNationsEducational,CulturalandScientificOrganization(UNESCO)IntergovernmentalOceanographicCommission(IOC)andtheInternationalUnionforConservationofNature (IUCN)(UNESCO,2009;Watlingetal.2013). 619 620 621 622 623 Todayitremainsacriticalfuturetasktodevelopconceptsfortheobservationandvaluationofmarine biodiversityandecosystemservices,andtheirintegrationintonationalaccountingsystems(COP10strategies). ThisincludesidentificationofEcologicallyandBiologicallySignificantAreas(EBSAs)andthedevelopmentof scientificandtechnicalsolutionsrelevanttoenvironmentalimpactassessmentsinmarineareas.Theseare requiredfortheholisticenvironmentalmanagementofdeep-seaecosystems. 624 High Level Mandates 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 Thesocietalmandateforobservingbiodiversityandotherbiologicalfeaturesinthedeepoceancomesfroma growingcommitmenttoprotecttheocean’sbiodiversity.Thiscommitmentappearsinmultiple intergovernmentallegalinstruments,fromUNCLOStotheUNGeneralAssemblyConventionsandSustainable DevelopmentGoals.AkeyagentistheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD),signedinRioby150nations in1992.TheCBDisaninternationaltreatydevotedtosustaininglifeonEarthforhumanwell-being.ACBD sponsoredstrategicplanformarineandcoastalbiodiversity(2011-2020)focusesontheadverseimpactof climatechangeonmarineandcoastalbiodiversity(e.g.,sealevelrise,oceanacidification,coralbleaching),on theconservationofmarinehabitatsthroughtheestablishmentofMarineProtectedAreas(MPA),andonthe needforfurtherresearchtoinvestigatetheroleoftheoceananditsecosystemsinthecarboncycle. 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 Withregardtothedeepocean,theCBDproposesthecarefulmanagementofdeep-seafisheries,consistent withprecautionaryapproaches,andtheestablishmentofimpactassessmentsthatfurthermarinescientific research,andusethebestscientificandtechnicalinformationavailabletoidentifyareaswherevulnerable marineecosystemsareknownorarelikelytooccur.OtherelementsoftheUNbiodiversitymandatesthat relatetothedeepseaincludetheRegionalSeasConventionsinnationaljurisdictions,aswellasframeworks thatgobeyondnationaljurisdictionsConventiononMigratorySpecies,CITES,andtheRegionalFisheries ManagementOrganizations,theInternationalSeabedAuthority(whichhasjurisdictionovertheseafloor),the CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 13 changesalsodriveregionaloxygenloss(Bogradetal.2015,Gilbertetal.2010).Fewlong-termoxygen measurementsexistfordeepwaters.Long-termobservationsareneededthatdocumentoxygenvariability overseasonaltodecadaltimescalesandthelonger-termseculartrendsinthedeepocean.Geographic emphasisonregionsundergoingmajorchange(theexpandingoxygenminimumzones,E.Pacificandsouthern Ocean)andotherregionsreachingoxygenthresholdsthataffectecosystemservices(e.g.,forfisheries),will providethemechanisticunderstandingneededtoproperlymodelfutureoxygenchangesandbiological responses. Page 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 InternationalMaritimeOrganization,andtheInternationalWhalingCommission(Ardronetal.2014).Thereis alsoanewUNtreatyonbiodiversitybeyondnationaljurisdiction(BBNJ)thatisinpreparatorymeetingsthis year(Wrightetal.2016).TogetherwithSustainableDevelopmentGoal14,whichadvocatesconservationand sustainableuseoftheocean,thesegenerateamandateforobservationofdeep-seabiodiversityand ecosystems. 646 647 648 649 650 651 Whilethedeepseamayseemaremoteenvironment,farfromtheinfluenceofhumans,thisisnolongerthe case.Humanpresenceinthedeepseaisgrowingexponentiallywithaccumulatingwaste,increasinglydeeper fishandshellfishharvesting,fishinggearimpactsandbycatch,deepeningoilandgasextraction,andnew deep-seaminingactivities(Ramirez-Llodraetal.2011),(Mengerinketal.2014).Despiteitsvalueasa wildernessareaandassuchanaturalreserveformuchoftheplanet’swildlife,inmanysocietiestodaypublic acknowledgmentofthedetrimentalhumanimpactonthedeepsearemainslow. 652 Science Challenges 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 Biologicalresponsetochangesinoceanenvironmentsmaytakemanyforms,onalllevelsfromgenesandmetabolites tocommunitiesandecosystems: • Changesinspeciesabundance(biomass/density),composition,diversity,withconsequencesforcommunity structureandfunctionandhabitatrangesanddistribution, • Behavioralresponses,afterpreycaptureefficiency,bioturbation(avoidance,swimmingefficiency,preycapture efficiency), • Reproductiveresponses(spawning,dispersal,recruitment), • Physiologicalresponses(growthrates/timing,calcificationrates,ratesofchemoautotrophicCO2fixation,methane oxidationrates,respirationrates,growthefficiency,tolerancesandthresholds), • Evolutionaryadaptation, • Geneticresponses(diversity,mutations,geneexpressionandproducts),and • Trophicandotherspeciesinteractions(preyavailability,predationrateandsymbioses). 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 Concludingin2010,theCensusofMarineLife,adecadalprogramestablishedabaselineforlifeintheocean. Aspartoftheprogramtherewasafocusondifferentdeep-searealms,frommargins-todeep-sea-basinsand ridges,andfromdetritus-based-ecosystems,tochemosynthetic-based-ecosystems.Deep-seabiologistsand geologistshighlightedthegreatvarietyofbenthichabitatsalongwiththeiruniquecharacteristicsincluding speciesdiversity,communitycomposition,aswellastheabundanceandbiomassoforganisms;frombacteria tolargefishes.Thestudyalsoidentifiedcriticaldatagapsinobservations,whereknowledgeismuchneeded includinginthedeeppelagicrealm,thecentraloceangyres,andtheice-coveredpolaroceans.Anothercritical gapliesinthetemporaldimensionandparticularlyshort-termresponsetotransientevents. 673 674 675 676 677 Thedeepoceanisstilltheplaceofgreatdiscoveries,ofnewhabitats,andnewspecies.Thenumberofspecies livinginthisremoteenvironmentremainsamystery,withestimatesfrom1-10millionforanimals,andorders ofmagnitudemoreformicroorganisms(Moraetal.2011).Furthermore,itissuspectedthatspeciesturnover onverticalandhorizontalspatialscales,aswellasontemporalscales,mayalsobeashighasisseenincoastal andterrestrialhabitats(Brandtetal.2007;Zingeretal.2011). 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 Theevolutionaryrates,adaptationstophysicalchangeandchemicalstresses,andtheroleofdeep-sealifein criticalecosystemfunctionssuchasremineralization,carbonsequestration,energytransfer,andprecipitation ofmineralsisfarfrombeingunderstood.Singlecellorganismslikeprotozoa,bacteria,archaeaandtheir virusesremainundiscoveredornotdescribed(e.g.Lecroqetal.2011).Mostofthepelagicrealmremains unstudied(Webbetal.2010).Thebehavioranddomainofcaptivatingdeep-sealifelikejelliesanddeep-sea sharkshavenotbeenwellobservedanddocumented.Asalmostalldeep-seaanimallifebelow1000mhasin commonisthatitcannotberecoveredwhilestillalive,studiesoftheirbehaviorandbiologymustbecarried outin-situorinhigh-pressuredeviceswithlimitedtimeconstraints.Andwhileknowledgeofremote environmentshasincreasedinthepastdecade,thevastmajorityoftheoceanremainsunsampled,andonly veryfewdeep-waterobservatorieshavebeenimplemented(Gloveretal.2010). Page 14 641 642 643 644 645 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 Thecombinationofexploratoryandresearch-drivenapproachestowardsobservingunder-sampleddeep oceanecosystems,andsocietalandclimate-inducedchangeshavegeneratedanewimperativeforstudying, observingandunderstandingdeep-seaecosystems(LevinandSibuet2012).Thesestudieshavearticulatedthe informationmostneededtoassess,evaluateandpredictfuturebiologicalresponsesinthedeepocean.For examplecharacterizationofpopulationconnectivity(exchangeofgenes,larvae,andadultsinspaceandtime) iscriticalforevaluatingecosystemresilienceandpersistenceinthefaceofdisturbancessuchasmining, trawling,andhydrocarbonspills.Knowledgeofwhatcontrolscolonizationandcommunitysuccessioncanlead togreaterunderstandingofresilienceandguideremediation,mitigation,andrestorationactivitiesfollowing bothnaturalandhuman-induceddisturbances. 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 Theintegrationofmajortheoreticalandconceptualframeworksinthedevelopmentofdeep-waterobserving goalsandtechnologicalapproachesisdesirable(LevinandDayton2009).Someoftheconceptualissues relevanttohealthyrolesandfunctionalrelationshipsofecosystemengineersincludetheinteractionsof animalsandmicrobes,predatorsandprey,parasiteandfacilitator,trophicwebtopology,productivityand diversityrelationships,andpopulationdispersal,connectivityandresilience.Thesebasicscientific understandingsareessentialtoestablishconceptsfortheobservationandprotectionofalllevelsof biodiversity(genetic,species,communitiesandecosystems). 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 Inadditiontotheseconceptualframeworks,importantscientificquestionsmethodologicaltoolsand approachesastothefunctioningofdeep-seaecosystemsinclude:Dodiverseandnon-diversesystems respondsimilarlytoperturbation,anddotheydifferinresilience?Howcanareasatriskforlossofbiodiversity bedetected?Howcanrecoveryfromlossofbiodiversitybedetected?Howcanwereducethethreatsto deep-seabiodiversitybyimplementingprotectedareas?Howcanweoptimizetheeffectivenessprotection measureunderclimatechangeinfluence?Howwillchangesintemperature,oxygen,andCO2affect communitystabilityandresilience?Quantifyingtheconsequencesoftheseresponsesfor ecological/ecosystemfunctions(respirationrates,remineralizationrates,biomassproduction,trophic pathways,nutrientfluxes,bioturbationrates,carbonburialrates)becomesahighpriorityifwearetomanage theoceansustainably.Theabove-mentionedparametersandprocessesareessentialtoselect,implementand managedeep-seamarineprotectedareas,todevelopecosystembaselinesagainstwhichenvironmental impactsareassessed,andtomonitorchangeandevenassessfiscaldebtresultingfromthelossofecosystem services. Page 15 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 717 718 PART TWO Setting: 719 Requirements Proposed Essential Ocean Variables for the Deep Ocean 720 Introduction 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 ThefollowingsectionintroducesasuiteofdraftEOVsforDeepOceanObserving.EOVscanincludeboth intrinsicandextrinsicpropertiesaslongastheyaddressthe overall GOOS Themes – Climate, Real-Time Services, and Ocean Health. The GOOS Framework suggests that EOVs must be capable of being observed or derived on a global scale, and must be technically feasible using proven, scientifically understood methods. Generating and archiving data on the variable must be affordable, mainly relying on coordinated observing systems using proven technology, taking advantage where possible of historical datasets. 728 729 730 731 732 733 Thedeep-oceanEOVsrecommendedherebuildonandinsomecasesoverlapwith,theshallowwaterEOVs developedbytheGOOSFramework(see http://goosocean.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14&Itemid=114).However,manyof thebiodiversityandecosystemEOVsdevelopedforshallowwaterarenotrelevantfordeepwater.Itis importanttorecognizethatthestatus,maturitylevel,andubiquityofEOVcoveragemaydifferinshallowand deepwater,dependingonsensordepthratingsandaccessibility. 734 TheseEOVsarepresentedasdrafts.AstheStrategymaturesovertime,theseEOVswillbereviewedaccording 735 toseveralcriteria: 736 737 • Theircontributiontoscientific knowledgeand/orsocietalissues, 738 739 740 741 742 743 • Theirfeasibility,maturityand sustainability(readiness)ofthe observingtechnology(refinedby individualscientists,national programs,andinternationalpilot projects), 744 • Theircosts. 752 753 754 755 756 Tojustifyaglobalobservation,a requirementmustbequitebroadly accepted,andtheneedarticulatedat theinternationallevel.Inorderto justifyanEOVobservationovera sustainedperiod,theserequirements willneedtoberefinedinamanner independentofspecifictechnologiesorimplementationapproach.Throughthisprocessandovertime, stakeholderdiscussionsonnewrequirementswilltakeplaceinthecontextofexistingobservationelements; asanycaseforchangingorcreatinganewrequirementwillincludeanevaluationofitsaddedvalue.This reportisintendedtobeginthisiterativeandadaptiveprocessinvolvingregularre-evaluationofdeep-ocean EOVsconstantlyinformedbynewknowledge,technologies,issues,andpriorities. 757 758 759 760 761 InthefollowingsectiontherequirementsforClimateandPhysicalprocessesintheoceanaremostmature, whiletheCarbonandBiogeochemistry,andtheEcosystemandBiodiversityrequirementsarelessmature.For theBiodiversityandEcosystemcommunitytherequirement-settingprocessisverymuchintheconceptphase aslimitedin-situobservationofthedeep-seaenvironmenthastakenplace.Thismakesitdifficulttofully articulaterequirementsthatrespondtosciencequestionsbornefromrepeatobservationofbaselineactivities CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 Page 16 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 764 ClimateandPhysicalEOVs 765 Mature Phase 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 SeaLevelisinextricablylinkedtodeep-oceancharacteristicsoftemperatureandsalinity.Asthedeepocean warmsorfreshensitexpands,andcontributestosealevelrise.Inordertoconstructasealevelbudgetitis necessarytoquantifythecontributionofdeep-oceantemperatureandsalinityvariabilitytochangesinsea level.Closingthesealevelbudgetisneededforunderstandingchangesandpredictingfuturetendenciesin sealevelchange(e.g.,Wunschetal.2007). Temperatureinthedeepocean,inadditiontoitsroleinsealevel,isalsovitalforquantifyingtheglobal energyimbalance.Withintheclimatesystemtheoceansarethelargestrepositoryoftheaccumulatedheat fromman-madegreenhousegasincreases,andthedeepoceanplaysacriticalroleinthisstoragesystem. Understandinghowmuchandwhere,thisheatisstoredintheoceanisvitalforthevalidationofclimate models,andtheabilitytopredicthowmuchandhowfasttheEarthwillwarmincomingdecades. Salinityinadditiontoitsroleinsealevel,isavitalvariabilityintheunderstandingofchangesinthedeep MOC,andocean-cryosphereinteractions.ThefresheningofAntarcticBottomWaterinrecentyearsisthought tooriginateatleastinpartfrommeltingofglacialice(e.g.,JacobsandGiulivi2010),andmaybecontributing toacontractionofAntarcticBottom Waterinrecentdecades(e.g.,Purkeyand Johnson2012). Currentsareintrinsicallylinkedto atmosphericforcingaswellas,water temperature,salinity,andsealevel; throughoceandensityandpressure fields,whichlargelygovernocean currents.Oceancurrentsarevitalfor diagnosingchangesinoceancirculationas wellastheattendantchangesinocean heat,freshwater,andotherwater properties(carbon,oxygen,andnutrient), includingthetransportofpollutants (hydrocarbonspills,radioactivity,etc.)or larvae/alienspecies. TransientTracersareusefulinquantifyingoceanventilation,formationrates,andidentifyinganthropogenic carbonuptake.Forinstance,CFCinventoriesfromdatacollectedbytheWOCEHydrographicProgram quantifiedmodernformationratesforAntarcticBottomWater(Orsietal.2002)andNorthAtlanticDeep Water(LeBeletal.2008),aswellastheirvariability(Huhnetal.2013).Oceantracershavealsoprovenvery usefulforvalidatingtheperformanceofclimatemodelsinthedeepocean.Whenlocatedclosetothe seafloor,theycanalsohelpidentifysourcesofsubsurfacefluids,andventingatplacessuchasat hydrothermalvents,submarinevolcanoes,andcoldseeps. 806 807 808 809 810 Chlorofluorocarbon/SulfurHexafloride:CurrentlymostimportanttransienttracersareCFC-11 and/orCFC-12andSF6.Thedifferenttimehistoriesofatmosphericconcentrationsofthesetracerscan beexploitedtoestimatethespectrumofage(timesinceventilationattheseasurface)ofinterior oceanwaters(e.g.Waughetal.2003).Thisinformationhaswideutilityincludingreconstructing uptakeofCO2,estimatingoxygenutilizationrates,andtestingglobalclimatemodels(Talleyetal. CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 17 andchangingconditionsovertime.Muchoftherequirementssetfortharewhatwillberequiredtowitness, potentiallyforthefirsttime,thislittleknownarenaofscientificexplorationanddiscovery. Page 762 763 2016).Theseanthropogenicgasesentertheoceanthroughair-seaexchange,anddonothaveany considerablesinksintheoceaninterior.Theirtransientinputfunctionprovidesameanstoestimate transporttime-scalesandmixingpatterns. TritiumandHelium-3:Alargepulseoftritiumintheatmospherefollowedtheatomicbombtestsin 3 the1960’s.Althoughtritiumdecaysto Heondecadaltimescalesitsoceanicsignalisstillusefulto 3 3 monitor;particularlythepairofTritiumand He.Additionally,primordial Heisreleasedatdeep oceanridgesmakingitauniquetracerfordeepoceancirculationwithinabout1000kmfromthe ridges. Carbon-14:Thisisaradioactivecarbonisotopethatiscommonlyusedfordatingoforganicmatteron timescalesofseveralthousandyears.Nuclearbombtestsinthe1960’sresultedinalargeinfluxof 14 atmospheric C,thisbombsignalcannowbemeasuredinintermediateanddeepwaters.This 14 changein Chasprovidedinformationonoceanventilationandthecarboncycleforseveraldecades (McNicholetal.2000). 826 827 828 829 830 831 832 833 Oxygeninadditiontoitsbiogeochemicalimportanceisusefulindiagnosingoceancirculationandwater-mass formationchanges.Deepandbottomwaters,whenformedareoxygenatedandbecomeoxygen-poorwith increasingdistance(andtime)fromtheirformationduetobiologicalconsumption.Attheoceansurface, oxygenconcentrationisdeterminedbyprimaryproduction,mixingandconsumption,attheseaflooritis influencedmostlybytotalcommunityrespiration,orbyfluidventing(e.g.seeps,vents).Changesinoxygen concentrationcanreflectchangesindeepandbottomwaterformationratesorcirculationstrength.While oxygenisroutinelymeasuredfromships(mature),makinghighlyaccuratemeasurementsfromautonomous platformsisstillinthepilotstage. 834 Pilot Phase 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 Argon-39isamongavarietyoftransienttracersthatcanpotentiallybemeasuredastheyareoftenrelatedto 39 differentintervalsofventilationperiods. Arisaverypowerfultracerforareasoftheoceanwithslower ventilationasithasahalf-lifeof269years,makingitanimportanttracertomeasureinthefutureestablishing temporalvariationsandchangesinoceanventilationandtransportofwatermasses,oceanmixinganduptake ofanthropogeniccarbononcentennialtimescales.Recentimprovementsinthemeasurementtechnology(i.e. AtomTrapTraceAnalysis(ATTA))willmakethisanincreasinglyfeasibletracerformeasurement. 846 Concept Phase 847 848 849 850 851 852 GeothermalFluxprovidesoneofthebottomboundaryconditionsforthedeepocean.Whileglobally -2 averagedoceanfloorheatfluxesofsmall(0.1Wm ),theydovaryspatiallywithlargervaluesatoceanridge crestsandsmallervaluesonabyssalplains.Theeffectsofridge-crestplumesonoceancirculationcanextend overgreatdistances(e.g.,JohnsonandTalley1997).Usefullarge-scalemapshavebeenmadefrompoint measurements(e.g.,Davies2013),butsmaller-scalemapsmightbeofsomeutility. 853 CarbonandBiogeochemistryEOVs 854 Mature Phase 855 856 InorganicCarbonischaracterizedbyfourmeasurablevariables;totalDissolvedInorganicCarbon(DIC),Total Alkalinity(TA),pH,andpCO2.Atleasttwoofthesevariableshavetobemeasuredinordertofullycharacterize CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 18 OceanBottomPressure(OBP)capturescolumn-integratedmasschanges,andwheremeasuredatsufficiently highfrequency,enablesthequantificationofintegratedoceancolumnvariability(QuinnandPonte2012). OBPcanberetrievedfromtime-varyingspacegravimetry(GRACE),andfrombottompressuresensors,butthe formerresolvesonlybroadspatialscales,andthelatterisvulnerabletosensordrift. Page 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 19 thestateoftheinorganiccarbonsystem;includingeitherDICand/orTAsincetheycanmorereadilybe measuredpreciselyandaccuratelythroughtheuseofcertifiedreferencematerials.(Spectrophotometrically determinedpHisauseful3rdparameterbecauseofthehighmeasurementprecisionandgrowinginterestin oceanacidification.)Theinorganiccarbonloadintheoceaninteriorisroughly50timesgreaterthanthatof theatmosphere.Further,asanincreasingamountoftheanthropogeniccarbonreachesthedeepocean, absorptionofthiscarbonbytheoceanisanimportantprocessinquantifyingtheglobalcarbonbudget. 13 CofDissolvedInorganicCarbonreflectstheisotopiccompositionofatmosphericCO2thathaschangeddue tohumanintroducedexcessesofCO2andisabulktracerofbiologicalprocessesduetofractionationofcarbon isotopeduringbiologicaluptake.Thismodifiedcarboncanbetrackedwithintheoceanandprovides important,andindependent,informationonthelocationofcarboninbothinthecontemporaryandpaleoocean(Quayetal.2003). MacroInorganicNutrients;Phosphate, Nitrate,andSilicateareimportant indicatorsofchangesinwatermasses and biogeochemicalactivity,butalsoin humanimpacte.g.viaeutrophication. Nutrientconcentrationsarean importantparameterforobserving changesinthebiologicalpumpandthe locationofanthropogeniccarbon. DissolvedOxygenisasensitivevariable for monitoringchangesinseveralocean processesandwaterproperties;these includewarming,stratification,and biogeochemistry.Thedeoxygenationof water-massneedstobemonitoredin ordertoassessoceanhealthandbiologicalactivity. DissolvedandParticulateOrganicMatterinthedeepoceanisrenewedeachyearby20%ofthetotalocean exportofDissolvedOrganicMatter(DOM).AlthoughthepoolofDOMintheoceanissmallincomparisonto theinorganicpool,thiscarbon-enrichedmatter(greaterthan200timesthecarboninlivingmatter)hasalarge relativeimpactoncarboncyclingintheocean.ThecompositionandageofDOMisrelevantindeterminingthe originofwatermasses,theirloadingwithterrestrialvs.marinematerials,andthetimeoftheirtransportin theglobalconveyerbelt.DOMisasubstrateformicroorganisms,whichcanalteritscompositionand selectivelytransformDOMcomponents.IfmicrobeswouldbemoreefficientindegradingDOM,ahigherflux ofCO2intotheatmospherecouldbetheresult.Newmethodsallowfortheresolutionofthousandsof individualDOMcompoundsmanyofwhichremainunknownintheirmolecularstructure. Theparticulatemattertransportedintothesea(aggregates,marinesnow,fecalpellets)orproducedby surfaceplanktonisexportedfromtheproductivesurfacelayerintothedeepoceanwhereitformsthekey energysourceforheterotrophicdeepsealife.POMfluxescanbemeasuredbysedimenttrapsautonomously atdifferentwaterdepths,asthecompositionofsinkingparticlesallowsestimatesofthetimingand communitystructureofphytoplanktonbloomsandtheirgrazers.Sedimenttrapsconnectedtooceanographic mooringsremainakeytoolinlinkingcarbonfluxestobiodiversityandthefoodwebstructure,aswellasto monitoringsurfaceoceanandseafloorprocesses.Besidessedimenttraps,oceanseafloorcommunity respirationviain-situmeasurementsisanotherrobustmethodtoassessPOMfluxes.Opticalmethodsfor assessingfluxquantitiesandcharacterincludingsize-andtype-distributionsarenowevolvingthatshowgreat promiseforaugmentingconventionalapproaches. Page 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 909 Mature Phase 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 PrimaryProductivity,orChlorophyll,OceanColor,SurfaceProductivityisashighasterrestrialproductivity, andshowssimilardynamicsinspaceandtime.Withintheoceanprimaryproductivityisrestrictedtothetop 20-100mandcanbeobservedremotelyfromsatellites,(byassessingchlorophyll,lightavailabilityand photosyntheticefficiencyoftheprimaryproducers).Itcanalsobeassessedbasedonnutrientcomposition, 14 andprocessmeasurementssuchastheuptakeof CO2.Whilenotgeneratedinthedeepocean,primary productivityisanimportantvariableinthedefinitionofbiogeochemicaloceanrealms,fromsurfacetodepth andreflectsthefoodsupplytodeep-oceanecosystems,thusitisincludedhere. 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 ElementFluxes,includingverticalexportofparticulateanddissolvedorganicmatteraremajorsourcesof carbonandassociatedbioelements(e.g.nitrogen,phosphorus,silicon,iron,etc.)tothedeepsea.The biologicalpumpdescribesthecollectivesetofprocessesthatresultinthenetexportoforganicmatterfrom theupperoceanandsubsequentselectiveremineralizationofthismaterialatdepth.Theseprocessesare regulatorsofair-seacarbonexchangeandultimatelyactaskeydeterminantsonthepartialpressureof atmosphericcarbondioxide.Thebiologicalpumpmaintainsverticalgradientsinthesebioelementsandresults inthedownwardmovementofelementsagainsttheverticalconcentrationgradient(hencethe“pumping”). Moreover,thedownwardmovementoforganicmatterfromtheupperoceantothedeepseaconstitutesthe majorsourceofenergyandnutritionfor deepseaorganisms.Organicmattercan beexportedfromtheupperoceanin bothparticulateanddissolvedphases; globallytheseprocessesaccountfor15-1 20GtCyr .Exportofparticulatematter canbemeasuredthroughuseof sedimenttrapsthatcapturedownward settlingparticles,orthroughvarious geochemicalapproachesincluding 234 Thoriumdisequilibriumandelemental massbalances. 937 Pilot Phase 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 RemineralizationRates:Biochemical oxygendemandortotalcommunity respirationistheamountofdissolvedoxygenconsumedbyorganismsinavolumeofwaterorsediment.It measureswhatisrequiredtobreakdownorganicmaterialmeasuredatacertaintemperatureoveraspecific periodoftime.Thisvariablecorrelatestocarbonandenergyavailability,aswellastoCO2fluxandnutrient remineralization(viatheRedfieldratio).Inmostdeep-seaenvironments,themajorityofoxygenconsumption comesfrommicrobialrespiration,butdeep-seafaunaandchemicaloxidationofreducedcompoundscanalso contributesignificantly;suchasatcoldseepsandhydrothermalvents. 946 947 948 949 950 SecondaryProductivity,orin-situproductivitygenerationtime,istherateofbiomassformationorenergy conversionbyorganismssuchasgrazersanddecomposers.Duetotheabsenceoflight,primaryproductivity inthedeepseaisrestrictedtoareaswheretheavailabilityofreduced,energy-richcompoundssuchas hydrogen,methane,sulfide,ammoniumorFeIIishighenoughtodrivebacterialorarchaealautotrophicCO2 fixation. 20 BiodiversityandEcosystemEOVs Page 908 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 StandingStockBiomassinthedeepsea,abundanceofbiomass,andthedistributionofallorganismsize classesisgenerallyafunctionoffoodsupplyandtemperaturewithinaparticularhabitat.Hence,standing stockbiomasshasbeenusedasaproxyforenergyandcarbonflowtoanecosystem.Generally,therelative proportionofbiomassdecreasesfromsmall,singlecelllife--whichusuallymakesupgreaterthan90%ofthe biomass,tolargemegafauna,includingfish--whichcompriselessthan5%ofthetotalbenthiccommunity biomass.Thisisassessedbycountingorganismsacrossallsizeclasses,usingmicroscopyorflowcytometryfor smallsinglecells,nets,continuousplanktonrecordersandacoustics,sortingandvisualcountingforsmall multicellularorganisms,orcamerasandacoustics(passiveandactive)forlargerorganisms. 963 964 965 966 Mesopelagicfishesareroutinelymonitoredthroughanumberofichthyoplanktonsurveyprograms.Thelarval phaseofmostmesopelagicfishesisfoundintheupper200mofthewatercolumnandcanthereforebe quantitativelysampledbyroutineplanktonsamplingprograms.Theabundanceoflarvalfishesprovidesan indexoftheabundanceofthedeeperadultspawningstock. 967 Concept Phase 968 969 970 971 TrophicInteractions:Food-webcharacteristicssuchastrophiclevelsandinteractionsareimportantfunctions ofecosystemsastheyaresensitivetochanges,suchastheremovaloflargepredatorsbyoverfishing.Critical elementsusedtoassesstrophicinteractionsincludestableCarbonandNitrateisotopesignatures(bulkand compound-specific),lipidbiomarkers,andtheaccumulationofpollutantsortracers. 972 973 974 PhysiologicalAdaptation:Forsomedriversofecosystemchange,itisrelevanttoassesspotentialnichesof organismsandlimitstotheirdispersal--suchastheirphysiologicalabilitytoadapttotemperature,pH,CO2 levels,oxygendepletion,andpollutiontonameafew. 975 976 977 978 979 TaxonomicDiversity:Thealphadiversityorthebarcodingoforganismsorspeciesrichnesswithinagiven habitatareaisanimportantecologicalvariable.Itcanbeassessedthroughthesamplingofdifferentsize classesandgeneticbarcodeanalysis,ormorphologicalidentification.eDNAandhighthroughputgenomicsis startingtoallowdetailedquantificationofeventhesmallesteukaryotesandprokaryotes.Developmentof thesetoolswillgreatlyincreasethespaceandtimescaleofmeasurementsthatcanbeobtained. 980 981 982 983 984 FunctionalDiversityattributescanbeevaluatedthroughbiologicaltraitanalysis,andespeciallyformicrobes, throughtranscriptomics,proteomicsandmetabolomicsincludingcoralmicrobiomesandsymbiontpopulation ofdeep-seainvertebrates.Akeygoalindocumentingchangeorrecoveryinthefaceofsocietalpressures (spills,trawlingmining)istounderstandtheconsequencesforecosystemfunctionandultimatelyecosystem services. 985 986 987 988 989 990 CommunityTurnover:Beta-diversityreferstothechangeinspeciescompositionamonggeographicareasand isanotherimportantecologicalvariablewhichisrequiredtounderstandnaturalandman-made-variationsin communitydiversity,structure,andcomposition.Animportantparameterofbeta-diversityisthespatialor temporalreplacementofspecies,alsoknownascommunityturnover.Aswithspeciesrichnessestimates,the underlyingmeasurementsarespeciesinventories,whicharenowoftenassessedbyhighthroughputgenetic sequencing. 991 992 HabitatDimensions:Thesizesandheterogeneityofhabitatswhichareoccupiedbydistinctcommunitiesare alsoimportantecologicalfeatures.Underlyingmeasurementsusedtounderstandtheseenvironmentsinclude CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 21 Atthesub-surfaceproductivityisdeterminedbythenumberoftrophiclevelsandthelengthsofthefood chainswithinanecosystem.Secondaryproductiondividedbytotalbiomassofagroupoforganismsprovides anestimateoftheirgenerationtime.Bacterialsecondaryproductionisassessedbyprocessrate measurementsalongwithtracersofradioactiveorstableisotope-labeledorganicmolecules. Page 951 952 953 954 993 994 995 996 bathymetricmaps,habitatmosaics,timelapsephotography,andlandscape-scaleimagingandchemical gradientsmappingatdifferentscales.Thecombinationofenvironmentalinformationandbiodiversity assessments,alongwithgeographicinformationsystemsareusedtoinformourunderstandingofecological variationsatvariouslandscapescales. 997 998 999 1000 EvolutionaryProcesses:Whereandwhenspeciesevolvehasconsequencesforboththecharacteristicsand functionaltraitsoforganisms.Theecologicalprocessesweobserveinthepresenthavebeeninfluencedby evolution.Theevolutionaryhistoryofecosystemsandtheircommunitiesisrelevanttotheassessmentof potentialforadaption,andspeciesresiliencetonaturalandman-madeclimaticvariations. 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 CommunityStructure:Thepresence(orabsence)ofcertaintaxa,andtheirrelativecontributiontototal abundanceoforganismsareessentialvariablestoassesscommunitystructure.Formicroorganisms,DNA fingerprintingapproaches,whichcomparesequenceabundance,havebeenawaytoacceleratethe assessmentofbiodiversityvariablessuchastaxonomicrichnessandrelativecomposition.Foranimals,such estimatesrelymostlyonmanualextractionoforganismsfromwaterorsediments,oftenbysieving (sediments)orfiltration(water)accordingtosizeclasses,andtaxaidentificationandquantificationby microscopy.Newhighthroughputmolecularmethods(eDNA)maystarttobedevelopedforsmallertaxabut willrequirecomparisonwithmorphologicalapproaches.Forfragilegelatinousorganisms,image-basedsurvey techniquesareoftenused.Fromabundanceandwetweightorcarbonmass,otherimportantvariablesare derivedsuchasbiomass,production;orestimatedspeciesrichness,speciesturnover,andtaxa-area relationships. 1012 Page 22 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 1014 1015 PART THREE Deployment and Maintenance: Observing Platforms and Technologies Addressing the EOVs Introduction 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 Oceanobservingtechnologydeploymentandinnovationarecoreprocessesofdeep-oceanobserving.Within theglobaloceanobservingsystemitistheobservationdeploymentandmaintenanceelementswhichconnect therequirementstotheneedfortechnologyandtechniqueswhichprovidetherequisitedataneededbythe usercommunityinordertomeasureanEOV.Assessmentofthereadinessleveloftechnologiesalignedwith anEOV,orEOVs,isthemechanismthroughwhichfeasibilityandimpactofproposalsforneworupgraded observationelementsisassessed.Discussionsfocusontheadequacyoftechnologyormeasurement techniquetomeettheneedsofaspecificEOV. 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 Someelementsofthedeep-oceanphysical,chemical,geological,biologicalandecologicalobservingsystem arealreadyimplemented.Presentlycriticalcomponentsofdeep-seaEOVassessmentrequirequantification involvingcomplicatedshipboardmeasurementsandoceanprocesses. Ship-basedmeasurementprogramsareacrucialcomponentoftheglobaldeepoceanobservingsystem.They provideveryaccuratereferencedataonoceanvariablessuchastracers,nutrients,thecarbonsystemaswell asbiologicalparametersthatcannotyetbequantifiedviaanyothermeans(e.g.Talleyetal.2016).However, expandingship-basedmeasurementprogramstoadequatespatialsamplingandsufficientobservationsto resolveseasonalandshorter,time-scalesovertheglobewouldbeprohibitivelyexpensive;giventhehighcost 1033 ofships,fuel,andpeople. 1034 Hence,theseship-based 1035 observationsneedtobe 1036 combinedwithpermanent 1037 fixedpointobservatoriesand 1038 mooredarraysdesignedto 1039 providemeasurementsof 1040 temporalchange,andarrays 1041 ofautonomousplatforms 1042 (e.g.floatsandgliders) 1043 designedforglobal,year1044 roundcoveragethatwill 1045 informfutureoceanclimate, 1046 physics,andecosystem 1047 studies.Deepfloatshave 1048 beendesignedandarebeing 1049 testedinpilotmodeand 1050 refined.Anemergingfieldof 1051 designanddeploymentfor 1052 fixed-pointobservatoriesisin thearenaofcabledobservatoriescapableofprovidingthepowerandcommunicationbandwidthrequiredfor sustainedandpotentiallydynamiclong-termobservationsofdeep-seaenvironments.Acousticmethods continuetoevolvetoremotelysampletheoceanbetweenfixed(ormoving)platforms,e.g.,acoustic thermometryandtomography,thatcanalsoprovidelong-rangenavigationsignalsforfloats(OceanObs’09 Dushawwhitepaper).Expandingourunderstandingofclimaticvulnerabilityofseafloorecosystemsand relatedfunctions(includingclimate-relatedones)willrequiremonitoringofenvironmentalvariabilityand dynamicecosystemresponsesusingseafloorplatforms. 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 Page 1016 23 1013 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 1061 1062 1063 1064 Belowisabriefreviewofconcerteddeploymentsofdeep-seaobservingtechnologies.Oftentheseprograms, platforms,andnetworksaredeployedtoconductgeospatialorvariable-specificstudies.Assuchtheir deploymentandoperationalmaturityvariesrelativetotheirfit-for-purposeintheglobalsustainedobserving system. 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 Inthefollowingsectiontechnologyreadinesslevelsareassessedbasedontheirscalability,maintainability, anddocumentedbest-practicesforpredictabledeploymentanduse.So,whileitmayappearthatsome technologieswhichhavebeensuccessfullydeployedinhighlyspecializedenvironmentsmaybelistedasless mature,thisisduetothefactthattheyhaveyettobefullyvettedatascalerequiredtomeettheglobal measurementneedsofagloballysustainedEOVobservingsystem. 1070 Mature 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 ShipboardSurveys:Deep-sea,referencequality,measurementsofclimate,biogeochemical,andbiological variablesaremostlytakenduringshipboardsurveys,andtheirresultssubmittedtodatarepositories.Vitalfor theassessmentofclimaticvariationsaretherepeatsectionstudiesconductedaspartoftheGO-SHIP Program.Presently,theGO-SHIPprogramsupportsalimitednumberoftrans-oceanicstudiestypically repeatedatdecadalintervals(Talleyetal.2016).Thissparsetemporalsamplingwithlargegapsbetweenshiptracks(typicallyafewthousandkilometers)resultsinincrementalincreasesintheunderstandingoftheglobal deepoceanatdecadalandlongertimescales.Asaresulteffortstocompletelyquantifysealevel,energyand freshwaterstorage,arehinderedbylargeuncertainties.Thephysicalandclimateandbiogeochemistry communitiescoordinatewellanddatacollectionpoliciesoftheseactivitiesaremature.However,for biologicalsurveys,globalandcross-regionalcoordinationofsamplingeffortsarestillrare,andneedahigh levelofstandardizationofsamplingequipment,data,andmetadata.Mobilelaboratoriescomposedofarrays ofsmallautonomousbenthicplatforms(associatedornotwithfixedpointobservatories)willbeneededto addressspecificclimate-sensitivitywithinregionsofparticularinterest/concernacrossrelevantandcommon spatialscales. ShipboardTimeSeries:Thereareseveraldeep-sealocationsthathostship-basedstudiesoftimeseriesofsea floorbiologicalcommunitiesandprocesses(Gloveretal.2010;Smithetal2013).Atabyssaldepthstimeseries studieshavebeenconductedinseveraloftheworld’soceanbasins.Mostofthetimeseriesthatbeganinthe 1940swiththeoceanweathershipshavebeendiscontinued,butothersarestillvisitedfrequently.Afew monthlyvisitedstationshavebeeninstitutednearmid-oceanislands(e.g.,HOTSandBATS).Duringthistime, spanningarangeofdepthsandenvironments,nearlyallofthestudieshavewitnessedchangesinboth hydrographicpropertiesalongwithcorrespondingbiologicalresponses(Gloveretal.2010). MooringArrays:Thereexistsalimitedsuiteofmooringarraysdesignedtoobservearangeofregionsand deep-oceanphenomena.Thesemooringsprovidevaluablemeasurementsofdeep-oceanvariablessuchas temperature,salinity,andcurrentsathightemporalresolution(comparedtoship-basedmeasurements),but lackcomprehensivespatialcoverage.Inthefuturespeciallyequippedmooringswithbio-opticaland biogeochemicalsensormodules,sedimenttrapsand/orcamerasystemsarekeytolinkphysicalandchemical variationstobiologicalones;andsurfaceoceanprocessestothoseindeepoceanandseafloorrealms.A promisingdevelopment,theinternationalnetworkOceanSITESisimprovingitsmeasurementofthedeep oceanbydeployingmaturetemperatureandsalinitysensorsontheirmooringsbelow2000meters. RemotelyOperatedVehicles,MannedSubmersibles,andSubmersibles:Overthepastfewdecadesseveral long-termstudiesofgeochemistryandbiologicalstructureshavebeenconductedatdifferenttypesofhot spotecosystemssuchascoldseeps,coldwatercoralreefs,deep-seahydrothermalvents,orseafloor experiments(e.g.LTERsiteHausgarten).AvarietyofsubmersiblesandRemotelyOperatedVehicles(ROV) havebeenusedtostudyandconductexperimentsinavarietyofcommunitiesassociatedwithwhalefalls, seepbenthos,canyons,hydrothermalvents,anddeep-oceanridges.However,thelong-termstudyof CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 24 Programs,Platforms,Networks Page 1060 1152 1153 1154 1155 1156 1157 1158 Overthelasttwodecades,variousflavorsofunderseacablessystemsforoceanobservinghavebeeninstalled andareoperating.SinglenodesystemssuchasMARS(MontereyBayat900m)andtheALOHACabled Observatory(ACOatStationALOHA,thesiteoftheHawaiiOceanTimeseries)canprovideafairamountof powerandcommunicationsinaplugandplayfashion.Regionalscalesystemswithmultiplenodesover100s ofkilometersarerepresentedbyNEPTUNECanada,DONET,andOOIcabledarray.DONETalsofunctionsasa seismic/tsunamiearlywarningsystem.TheS-NetsystemoffJapanisstrictlyanoperationalwarningsystem (5000km,200sensors),albeititspressuresensorswouldbeveryusefulforoceanographicuse. 1159 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 25 midwaterecosystemsoffshoreMontereyistheonlyoneofitskind,inahabitatthemakesupmostofthe oceansvolume.Completelylackingaretime-seriesdatafromdepthsof6,000-11,000metersintheocean’s trenches. PilotPhase AutonomousSingleMooringsandMooringArrays:Othertechniquesincludingsustainedautonomous mooringsandmooringarraysarepresentlysamplingthroughoutthewatercolumnatavarietyofkey locations(e.g.OceanSITES,reviewbyGloveretal.2010).However,autonomousmooringtechnologymustbe improvedinordertoallowformorelong-termanddeepermeasurements.Instrumentdevelopmentis essentialinordertopermitoperationatvariabledepths(profilingofsubsurfaceandsurface),increasethe lifetimesofmooringdeploymentsincludingtheirenergysupply,improvethestabilityandaccuracyof instrumentcalibrations,decreasethecostofhardwareanddeployments,andallowcontinuousoroccasional telemetryofdatatoshore.Datatelemetryinice-coveredandparticularlyharshenvironmentsrequires developmentofretractablemooringcomponents(i.e.,underwaterwinches)andautomateddetectionofice coverandseastate.Despitethebenefitsofferedthroughtheexpandeduseofmooringsandarrays,costand logisticconsiderationsprecludeglobaldeploymentatsufficientspatialresolutionrequiredtoquantifyglobal heatandfreshwaterinventories,andchangesinglobalcirculationpatterns. DeepFloatsandGliders,LongRangeAUVs:Inordertoachieveadequateglobalsamplingofthedeepocean somecombinationofdeepfloatsanddeepglidersmustbedeployed.Bothdeepfloatsanddeepglidersare extensionsofexistingtechnology,andarebeingmaturedtoincludethemeasurementoftemperature, salinity,andsoonoxygen,alongwithotherwaterpropertiessuchasnutrientsorgases.Sensortechnologies arebeingdevelopedthataresufficientlylong-lived,small,efficient,andaffordable.Gliderscanalsomeasure velocitiesdirectlyusingADCPs.DeepfloatsofferthepossibilitytoextendsomeEOVmeasurementsfrom 2000mtofulloceandepth.Indeed,severalnationsarecurrentlydeployingsmallnumbersofdeepArgofloats inpilotregionalarrays,withadesignstudyforaglobalDeepArgoarray(Johnsonetal.2015).Repeatglider trackscouldbeestablishedanddesignedtoincreasethetemporalandspatialresolutionofshipboardsurveys. Thedeploymentofsomecombinationofautonomousassetsisappropriate,withdeepglidersrepeatedly measuringacrossstrongandvariableboundarycurrents,whiledeepfloatsmeasurethebroadinterior. CabledUnderwaterObservatories:Recently,permanentcabledunderwaterobservatorieshaveoffereda uniquestepforwardinfixed-pointoceanobservation.Theirabilitytomeasureabroadrangeofenvironmental elementsisenhancedbytheirdedicatedpowerandcommunicationcapabilities.Deep-watercablesprovide energyandcommunicationenablingrepeat,temporallyandspatiallytargetedbiologicalsamplingandanalysis inboththewatercolumnandattheseafloor.Sensorsamplingcanalsobecoupledwithvideo-and photographicrecordingofhabitats,organismsandprocesses.Theseobservatorieshavethecapacityto providenewmeasurementsforallfieldsofoceanscience,especiallyenergy-anddata-costlycamera observations;tointegratethosewhichhavenotbeencoveredbyautonomoussensing,includingderived processes,suchasproductivity,growthrates,andbiodiversityshifts.Modularinstrumentsforbio-optical, molecular,chemical,geneticandbehavioralstudiesexist,butcanonlybedeployedintheopenoceanfor researchwhenaccompaniedbyanenergysourceanddatatransfercapability.Thereforesubstantial innovationsaretobeexpectedthroughtheuseofcabledobservatories,especiallyinthefieldsofbiological oceanographyandecology,andmonitoringbiodiversitychangeandecosystemfunction. Page 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 1151 1174 Concept 1175 1176 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184 MobileDeep-seaLaboratories:Anapproachchampionedbybenthicresearchersandthedeep-subsurface microbiologicalcommunityhasbeenthedevelopmentofmobiledeep-sealaboratories,whichmaybemoved fromregiontoregion.Thesemobilefacilitiesareframes(landers)capableofhostingasuiteofhydrographic, biogeochemical,opticalandacousticsensors,aswellasfixedbiologicalsurveyequipment(e.g.benthic chambers,microprofilers,sedimenttraps,planktonrecorders,larvalpumps,molecularsequencers)and processexperiments(e.g.,respirometers,colonizationsubstrates,organicfalls).Thesefacilitiesofferthe optionofdeploymentandoperationindifferentregionsforextendedperiodsoftime(monthstoyears),as wellasbeingreplicatedanddeployedinmultipledeep-oceansettings.Oncematurethecommunitymayelect tosupportaninternationalmannedhabitatinthedeepsea. 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190 1191 1192 1193 1194 1195 1196 1197 Environmentalsensingontelecommunicationscables:Attheconceptphaseisanewefforttoadd environmentalsensorstotrans-oceaniccommercialtelecommunicationscablesystems(JTFSMARTCables, http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/climatechange/task-force-sc/Pages/default.aspx).Thesesystemshaverepeaters every50-100km(e.g.,mesoscaleresolvingalongthecablepath),whichcanprovidemodestpowerand communications.Currentplanscallforoceanbottompressureandtemperature,with3-dacceleration,to monitoroceancirculationandclimate,tsunamisandearthquakes.Giventhatthereareabout1.5Gmof presentlyinstalledcable(with25yearlife),anditisrefreshedevery10-15yearsfornewtechnology,overthis sametimeframeonecouldobtainasmanyas20,000seafloormini-nodesspanningoceanbasins.Itislikely thatadditional/othersensors(e.g.,salinity,passiveacoustics,invertedechosounder/acousticmodem,biooptics,amongothers)couldbeadded.Thisnewapplicationriding“piggy-back”onexistingverymature, extremelyhighreliabilitytechnologycanprovideaveryrobustcomplementtothecurrentinsituandsatellite sensing(altimetryandgravity).(https://eos.org/meeting-reports/submarine-cable-systems-for-futuresocietal-needs). 1198 Sensors,ProcessesandTechniques 1199 1200 1201 1202 1203 1204 1205 1206 1207 Forthedeepoceanobservingcommunityobstaclesrelatedtotheadvanceofdeep-seaobservationsinclude thelimitedsuiteofsensors,analyticaltools,orsamplinginstrumentsthatcanbedeployedonautonomous platforms.Processingandanalyzingdatastreamslikethosefromphotographicorgeneticsequencingishighly effortintensive.Suchanalyticalworkflowswillbenefitfromcontinueddevelopmenttowardsremovinghuman interventionstepsingeneratingusefulknowledge.Today,timeseriesstudiesofthedeepoceandepend primarilyonship-basedsamplingefforts(Gloveretal.2010)thatareexpensiveanddifficulttosustainat temporalandspatialscalesrequiredforclimatestudies.Assuchthedeepoceanobservingcommunityis challengedtoexpandtheobservingsystemanddeterminetheappropriatemixofexistingsensorsand platformsandtheattendantdeploymentofnewfixedandautonomoussensorsandplatforms. CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 26 Beyondthewiderangeofsensorsandinstrumentsthatcanbedeployedviaabroadbandcabledobservatory, theymayhavethecapacitytohostaseriesofdata-intensivetechnologiessuchasrobotics,video,andin-situ molecularmeasurementtechniques.Sporadiceventsoncedetected,withtheaidofnetworktechnology,may allowresearcherstointeractwiththemodularcomponentsoftheobservatoryandpotentiallyadaptthe samplingpatternsofindividualsensorstodynamicallyaddobservationsandmanipulations.Thisopportunity willenablecustomobservationandresearchofepisodiceventssuchassuddenhydrocarbonreleases,volcanic eruptions,oceantemperatureanomalies,andseverebenthicstorms.Observatoriesfocusedontheseafloor willofferearthandoceanscientistsnewopportunitiestostudymultiple,interrelatedprocessesovertime scalesrangingfromsecondstodecades.Theseincludeepisodicprocessessuchassporadicdeep-ocean convectionathighlatitudes,submarineslides,alongwiththeresultingbiological,chemicalandphysical changes.Additionally,theseobservatorieswillallowforthestudyofprocessestakingplaceoverperiods rangingfrommonthstoseveralyears,suchasmethanehydratedissolution,biomassvariability,aswellas globalandlong-termchangesincludingwarmingtrendsandoceanacidification. Page 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 1170 1171 1172 1173 1231 Physical and Climate Observations 1232 1233 1234 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 1242 1243 1244 Sensorsthatmeasuretemperature,salinity,tracers,andvelocityonplatformssuchasships,moorings,and cabledobservatoriesarerelativelymature.SamplingofCFCs,SF6,canbemeasuredwithahighdegreeof 39 accuracyandprecisionfromseagoingresearchvesselsandanalyzedonboard,while Arsamplingrequires 14 thatthesamplesarestoredduringthecruiseforlateranalysisonshore,(IOCCPreport14).Additionally, C measurementtechniquesarewellestablished,andcompletedon-shoreoncethecruisehascompleted. TemperatureandsalinitymeasurementtechnologiesondeepArgofloats,gliders,andsubmersiblesare currentlybeingtestedandmatured.OceanBottomPressure(OBP)measurementsonmoorings,oncabled observatories,andgravimetryonsatelliteplatformsarealsobeingmatured. Insitumeasurementofcurrentsonmooredarraysismature,butisinthepilotphasewithregardstothe deploymentanduseofdeepglidersanddeepArgofloats.Anotheremergingpracticeisthecombinationof OBPandsealevelmeasurementsatsufficientaccuracylevelsastoenablethedistinctionofwhereandwhat changesinmassandheatcontentimpactsealevel(Ponte2012). 1245 1246 1247 1248 1249 1250 Acousticnavigationandtomographyareusedtobetterdefinetheoceanvelocityfield,acousticfloattracking haslongbeenusedforprocessexperiments.Oneshouldconsidertheimplementationofbasinscale infrastructuresystems(i.e.,sourcesatlowerfrequency,broaderbandwidth)toaffectthis,usingreceiverson Argofloats(“shallow”and“deep”)aswellasconventionaldeepRAFOSfloats.Thiswouldenableobtaining longterm,hightemporalresolutiontrajectories(velocityEOV).Thesameacousticreceivercanbeusedfor windandrainmeasurements(EOVs?),marinemammaland“soundscape”monitoring(EOV?). 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 Acoustictomographyistechnicallymature,havingbeenusedincabled(ATOC)andmooredscenariosfor decades.ArraysarecurrentlydeployedinFramStraitandtheBeaufortSeawithexpansionintotheArctic anticipated(ledbyNorway).Watercolumnspanningtemperatureandabsolutevelocity(EOVs)withsome depthresolutioncanbeobtainedfromtheacoustictraveltimesbetweeninstruments.Workisunderwayto usemobileplatformsasreceivers(e.g.,gliders).Thesamelowfrequencybroadbandsourcescouldbeusedfor bothnavigationaswellastomography.Thepathaveragesinherentlysuppressinternalwaveeffectsresulting CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 27 Severalelementsnottraditionallyincorporatedinto observingsystemsmaybeconsidered: • Visual:Videoandphotocameraimagery, Repeatlarge-scaleAUV(image)surveysofthe bottomforbiology • Sedimentprofileimagingcamera • Acoustics:Sonar,passivemonitoring,ADCPs, invertedechosounders,long-rangenavigation andacoustictomography/thermometry • Opticalinstrumentation:particlecounters, Zooscan • Timeseries:viasurfaceship(e.g.,coring, landers),ROV,HOV,hybridvehicles(samplingandtransectsofvarioussorts-cores,hardsubstrates, biogenicsubstrates)andgeochemicaltracerappliedtoecologicalstudies • In-situsamplers:Planktonrecorders(gauze),Larvalpumps,Sedimenttraps,fluidosmo-samplers • Experiments:respirometers,carbonatedissolutionunits,tracerdeployments,colonizationsubstrates, sedimentmanipulations,organicenrichments(carcasses,phytodetritus) • In-situMolecular/Genomicanalysis,andnewautonomouschemicalsensorsO2,H2S,NO3-,CO2/pH,N20) forexperimentmonitoring • Horizontalelectricfieldtodetermineabsolutebarotropicvelocity,usingcables,“point”sensorsonthe bottom,andfloats Page 1208 1209 1210 1211 1212 1213 1214 1215 1216 1217 1218 1219 1220 1221 1222 1223 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 1230 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 inahighsignaltonoiseratio.Themethodis calibrationfree(atimemeasurement).A verysignificantbenefitofthemethodisthe growthinthenumberofdataisquadratic: thinkofnpassivereceiversonaSMART cabletraversinganoceanbasin.Addinga singlesourceimmediatelygivesndata;a secondsourceaddsanotherndata,andone couldobtainhighaccuracybasinscaleheat contentinaday. 1267 1268 Carbon and Biogeochemistry Observations 1272 1273 1274 1275 1276 Inthecarbon,biogeochemistryarenashipbasedobservationsofinorganiccarbon: alkalinity,pCO2,pHareinthematurephase, whilethesesamemeasurementtechnologiesarecurrentlyintheconceptorpilotphasewhendeployedon moorings,deepArgofloats,deepglidersandsubmersibles.Oxygensensorsarematureonships,withaccuracy andlong-termstabilityclosetobeingrobustforfloatsandgliders.Thereisacontinuingneedtodevelop sensorsthatcanbesupportedonautonomousplatforms/robotics,asweneedmanymoreobservationsthan canbemadefromships,andthecostsareordersofmagnitudeless. 1277 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 1287 1288 1289 1290 1291 1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300 1301 1302 1303 1304 1305 1306 Theanalyticalmethodsforinorganiccarbonsamplesarewelldeveloped.Certifiedreferencematerialsare available,(forDICandTA)andusedtomeetlong-termaccuracyrequirements(Dicksonetal.2007andWang etal.2007).Inthefuture,improvementsinsensortechnologyanddatadeliverytimeswilllikelyallowforlongterm,bettercalibrated,measurementsofcarbonatevariablesonautonomousplatforms.Theseelementsif presentinthedeepoceaninterior,willbeusefultomonitorshorttimevariabilityandseasonality,however, theywilllikelynotbeaccurateenoughtomonitordecadalchanges. 13 TotalDissolvedInorganicCarbonand CO2measurementandanalytictechniquesarewellestablished,aswell 14 as Cusingacceleratormassspectrometry(AMS).Samplesaretypicallytakenontheshipforshore-based analysis.Thesecalibrationroutinesandinter-laboratorycomparisonsarewellestablished;inpartastheresult 13 ofextensiveatmospheric CO2measurementintercomparisons. Todate,theaccuracyofinorganicnutrientmeasurementshave,ingeneral,beeninsufficientintoquantify changesinthedeepocean.Measurementsarenormallydonewithspectrophotometricmethodsusingauto analyzers.Analysisshouldbeperformedontheshipassoonaspossibleaftersampling.Oftenpreservingthe samplesformeasurementonshore,afterthecruise,hasanegativeimpactonprecisionandaccuracy. Certifiedreferencematerialsarenowavailablewhichwillgreatlyimproveaccuracyandcomparabilityof measurementsashasoccurredwithstandarduseofCRMsfortotaldissolvedinorganiccarbonandalkalinity, andstronglyrecommendedforuse(IOCCPreport14;Gordonetal.1993). DissolvedOxygenMeasurementsonboardarecarriedoutusingWinkler-titration,atechniqueestablishedin th theendofthe19 century.Oxygencanalsobemeasuredpreciselywithsensorsmountedeitheronthe Conductivity,Temperature,Depth(CTD)packageoronautonomousvehicles(gliders,floatsetc.),however thesemeasurementsalsorequirecalibrationandreferencingusingWinklertitrations(IOCCPreport14).A majoradvancehasbeenthecapabilitytoreferencetheoxygensensorstoairandprofilingfloatsarebeing reconfiguredtoofferthisstandardizationeachtimeitreachesthesurface(Bushinskyetal.,2016) Opticaltoolsthatincludechl-afluorescence,opticalbackscatter,holographyandlight-fieldimagingcanbe usedinprofilingmodestodeterminetheparticletype-andsize-distributionsintimeorspace(e.g.Briggsetal. CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 Page 28 1269 1270 1271 1313 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Observations 1314 1315 1316 1317 1318 1319 BiologicalOxygenDemandorRemineralizationRate observationtechniquesareinthepilottomature phaseacrossplatforms.Oxygenconsumptioncanbe assessedbybottleorsedimentcoreincubationsand in-situbychamberincubationsormicroprofiler measurements. 1320 1321 1322 1323 1324 1325 1326 Standingstockorbiomassdistributionacrosstaxaandfaunalsizeclasseshelptoassesstrophicstructureof food-webs.Sometaxaandproductivitycanbeassessedthroughthemonitoringofbio-optical instrumentation,bioluminescenceorbysoundcollectedviapassiveoractivehydro-acousticmeasurements (formammals,fishandzooplankton).Theuseofstereoscopicimaging,holographyandlight-fieldcamerasnot onlyshowspromiseforthequantificationoffragilemarinesnowparticles,butalsoimportantecological quantitieslikegelatinouszooplanktonthatareverychallengingtostudyotherwise.Thesemeasurementsand spatial-temporaldistributionrequiresadditionalexperimentationandunderstanding. 1327 1328 1329 1330 1331 1332 ThereareseveralbiodiversityandecosystemEOVsstillintheconceptphase.Thedifficultyincapturingand observingdeep-sealifepresentstremendouschallenges,althoughship-basedsamplingmethodsarewell established.However,expense,thehighlevelofeffortrequired,workflow/delayandinvasivenessmake themunsuitedforroutineandfrequentobservationsatlargespatialscales.LOKI,flowcytometry,andvarious opticalimagingsystemsarewellestablished.Whiletheseimagingsystemsaremature,theautomatedspecies recognitiontechnologyisnot,andworkisneededtoenhancevalueforbiodiversityassessment. 1333 1334 1335 1336 Trophicinteractionscanbeobservedthroughthestudyofstablecarbon,nitrogen,sulfurisotopesignatures, lipidbiomarkers,andtheaccumulationofpollutantsortracersfoundinharvestedspeciesorthosecapturedin traps.Physiologicaldispersion,andadaptiontoecosystemchangeiscommonlyassessedthroughin-situ, shipboardorlaboratoryexperiments,however,fewdeep-seaorganismsareaccessible. 1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 Diversitybaselineandturnoverstudiesaredifficult,againduetothechallengesassociatedwithobservation andsampling.Therehasbeensomeprogressingene-basedrapidbiodiversityassessments(e.g., metagenomics,DNA-barcoding),butsuccessfulapplicationdependsonbaselineknowledgeofspeciesidentity. Diversityindicators,suchasrareversusabundantspecies,canbeappliedtoestimatetheproportional populationoforganisms.Diversityindicescanalsobeusedtoassessresiliencetochange,alongwiththe restorationofcommunitiesinimpactedenvironments.Moreresearchmayrevealindicatorsspeciesthatcan beused(likeacanaryinacoalmine)toreflectthestatusandhealthofdifferentecosystemsandprovideearly warningofimpendingchange.However,thedifficultytovalidatebioticqualityindexeswillbeashighasinthe coastalzone. 1346 1347 1348 Theavailabilityofanopen-accessrepositoryfordeep-seageneticsequencedatatakesonincreasing importanceasbarcodingandothergenetictoolsgainuseindiversityassessment.Thisisparticularlytruefor meiofauna,forwhichassessmentsareevenmoretimeconsumingandrequirerareexpertise. 1349 1350 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 29 2011).Quantitativeinferencescanthenbemadefor quantitieslikeparticulateorganicremineralization lengthscale(RLS)(Sensue,BuesselerandBoyd2009) orthetypesandsizesofparticlesassociatedwith variationinRLS. Page 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1353 1354 Introduction 1355 1356 1357 1358 AstheoutputoftheDeepOcean,oranyobservingsystem,dataandinformationproductsaretheinterface formostusers.FortheDeepOceanObservingcommunity,theseproductsincluderawdata,deriveddata products,models,ansoftware.Weincludealloftheseas“informationproducts”thattheDOOSinformation managementstrategymustaddress,andusethetermsdataandinformationinterchangeably. 1359 1360 1361 1362 1363 1364 1365 1366 1367 1368 1369 1370 1371 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 1377 1378 Theneedfordataandinformation runsthroughoutthescientificgoalsof theDeepOceanObservingSystem.A globalunderstandingofthedeep ocean,whetherfromtheperspective ofdeepwaterformationpatterns, heatbudgets,acidification,or biodiversitypatterns,requiresthe integrationofdatafrommany observatoriesandresearchprograms. Progressinareaslikeclimatechange, whereforensicchallengestoscientific resultsarelikely,requirethatdata, models,andmodeloutputbewelldocumented,citable,andofknown provenance.Acrosstheboard, observationsinthedeepoceanare sufficientlysparseandexpensivethat availabledatashouldbesharedand reusedforthefieldtoprogress. 1379 InformationSystemGuidelines 1380 1381 1382 1383 1384 1385 1386 1387 1388 AshasbeenadoptedbyGOOS,thegoaloftheDOOSinformationmanagementstrategyandpolicywillbeto fosteranopenandinteroperablesystemofregional,coastal,andglobalobservingnetworksthatrapidlyand systematicallyacquireanddisseminatedataanddataproductstoservetheneedsofscientists,government agencies,educators,non-governmentalorganizations,andthepublic.Thisdocumentdeliberatelydoesnot putforwardaproposedarchitectureortechnicalframeworkforaDOOSinformationsystemapproach, becausethetechnicalsolutionmustfollowthescientificrequirements:asDOOSfurtherdevelopsthescience componentsofitsstrategicroadmap,andconductsanassessmentofthemanycurrentsystems’capabilities,a roadmapforthespecificIMstrategiesrequiredtosupporttheDOOSsciencevisioncanbedeveloped.Instead, wepresentbelowasetofguidelinesforIMstrategydevelopment. 1389 1390 1391 1392 PromoteOpenData.Tothedegreepossiblewithinnationalandfundingrestrictions,DOOSwillpromotethe openandfreeexchangeofscientificdata,asdescribedintheOpenDatainaBigDataWorldAccord(Science International2015)andendorsedbytheInternationalCouncilforScience.Thisincludesacceptingthe fundamentalresponsibilityofsharingsciencedata: 1393 1394 1395 1396 Publiclyfundedscientistshavearesponsibilitytocontributetothepublicgoodthroughthecreationand communicationofnewknowledge,ofwhichassociateddataareintrinsicparts.Theyshouldmakesuchdata openlyavailabletoothersassoonaspossibleaftertheirproductioninwaysthatpermitthemtobere-used andre-purposed. CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 Page 1352 30 PART FOUR Data and Information Products: Importance of Open and Shared Data 1351 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 1403 1404 1405 1406 1407 AnopendatapolicywillseektogeneratearippleeffectthatacceleratestheoceanandEarthobservation community’sprogresstowardtheapplicationofthebenefitsofdeep-oceanobservationsacrossmultiple scientificdisciplines,andincreaseduseofthedataandinformationasappliedtotheunderstandingand addressingofsocietalissuesglobally.Thebenefitsofdatasharinginfurtheringscientificprogressarewell known.Asoneexample,theTAOarray,atropicalPacificOceanantennafordetectingElNiñoandLaNiña,was ahighlyvisiblepioneerinanopendatapolicyinthearenaofphysicaloceanography.Numericaldataand productsincludingmanydifferenttypesofplotsweremadeavailableinrealtimeviatheinternet.Thisopen policygeneratedaveryhighlevelofdatauseintheresearchcommunity,aswellasanincreasingrelianceon thedataforseasonalclimatepredictionsmadebyweatherandclimateservices--resultinginverylarge economicbenefitsforsociety. 1408 1409 1410 1411 1412 Morerecently,theglobalArgoarrayofprofilingtemperatureandsalinitymeasuringfloatshasadoptedan opendatapolicywithsimilarbenefitsintermsofburgeoningscientificandoperationalusercommunities.The globalnatureofArgomeansthatitisincreasinglyusefulininitializingoperationalmodelsanddata assimilationproducts.Argoarraydataproductsareusedforhindcasting,now-casting,andforecasting,and morerecentlyarebeingusedexperimentallyforinitializingmodelsfordecadalclimateprediction. 1413 1414 1415 1416 TheimportanceofopendataisparticularlyimportantinDeepOceanObservingscience,wherelackofdata limitscientificprogress,andmissingdatafromthehistoricrecordcannotbereproduced.DOOSwillpromote theopensharingofdatathroughmaturerepositories,suchasthosemeetingICSUWorldDataSystem(WDS) andtheDataSealofApproval(DSA)CoreTrustworthyDataRepositoryRequirements(Edmundsetal.2016). 1417 1418 1419 1420 1421 1422 1423 1424 1425 PromoteBestPracticesforInformationManagement.Inadditiontoacommitmenttoopendata,DOOSwill worktoidentifyandpromotebestpracticesrelatingtodatamanagementanddatasharingfordeepocean observations.Thesewillincludegeneralprinciples,suchastheFAIRguidingprinciplesforscientificdata managementandstewardshipformakingdataFindable,Accessible,Interoperable,andReusable(BoxX (optional)Wilkinsonetal2016),andtheenablingpracticesofcitationandprovenance,interoperability,nonrestrictivereuse,andlinkabilitynamedintheScienceInternational(2015)Accord.Itwillalsoincludethe evaluationandpromotionofdomainspecificpractices,suchasqualitycontrolproceduresforspecificEOVs, andparticularstandards,vocabularies,andservicesprotocolsneededtosharedeepoceandataeffectively. Thespecificpracticesendorsedwillbeidentifiedbasedonscientificpriorities. 1426 1427 1428 1429 1430 1431 1432 1433 Leverageexistinginformationmanagementinfrastructure.Deepoceandataareheldinmanywellestablishedrepositoriesaroundtheworld,andmanydeepoceanprojectsalreadyhaveamandateto contributedatatoaspecifiedrepository,suchasthenationaloceandatacenterfortheircountry.Itisneither feasiblenorefficienttocreateanewglobaldeepoceaninformationsystemdesignedtoholdalldeep-sea data.Furthermore,segregatingdeepseadatafromotheroceandataisnotscientificallydesirable:deepwater formationcanonlybestudiedinthecontextofsurfacewatermovementsandproperties,ParticulateOrganic Matterfluxestotheseafloorarebestunderstoodalongsidesurfaceproductivitydata,thepatternsand processesdrivingdeepbiodiversityshouldberelatedtoshallowercommunities,etc. 1434 1435 1436 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 Therearealsomanyongoingeffortstobetterintegratedataacrossrepositories,toidentifyandpromotebest practicesfordatacurationandsharing,andtodevelopstandardsandprotocolstoimprovedataquality, accessibility,andusability.GroupsliketheResearchDataAlliance,theGrouponEarthObservations,theOpen GeospatialConsortium,andtheOceanDataInteroperabilityPlatformareworkinginternationallyonthese challenges,andhavemanynationalequivalentsworkingwithinindividualcountries.Domain-specificgroups suchastheInternationalOceanographicDataandInformationExchange(IODE)andQualityAssuranceofReal TimeOceanData(QARTOD)aredevelopinganddisseminatingprotocolsspecifictovarioustypesofocean data. 1442 1443 1444 1445 DOOSwillnotduplicate,butwillseektoevaluate,contributeto,andsupplementtheseongoingactivitiesto bestmeettheneedsoftheDOOScommunity.TowhatdegreenewIMsystemcomponentsorpracticesmust bedeveloped,vshavingDOOSpromoteanddisseminateexistingpracticesandcontributetoanduseexisting resources,willdependonthespecificprioritiessetforthbytheDOOScommunity. CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 31 Page 1397 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 1451 1452 1453 1454 1455 1456 1457 Identifytherequirementsandprioritiesofthedeepoceanobservingcommunity.Despitetheplethoraof institutional,national,andinternationaldataefforts,noexistinginformationsystemcurrentlymeetsthe needsoftheDOOSsciencecommunity.BroaddialogamongDOOSparticipantswillassistinidentifyingwhat partnershipsarerequiredtocreatetheinformationneededtosupportscientificdiscoveryandaddress societalissuesandassistindecisionmaking.AkeyelementwillbeidentificationofDOOSstakeholders.Who willusethedata,andhow?Specificdeepoceanresearchtopicswillhavespecificrequirements,anddifferent challengeswillhavedifferentsolutions.Anotherkeyelementwillbetosurveythecurrentprojectsproducing deepoceandatatoaskwhethertheirdata,modelsandsoftwareareshared,andifsothroughwhat repository;whatarethestandardsthattheirinformationproductsadhereto;andwhatcapabilitiesand servicesdotherepositoriessupport?FinallyagapanalysisevaluatingwhatIMcapabilitiesarecurrentlyahigh priorityforstakeholdersbutnotsupportedbyexistingrepositories/IMsystemscanidentifyprioritiesforDOOS IMstrategydevelopment. 1458 1459 1460 1461 Thecreationandexecutionofasuccessfuldatamanagementcapabilitywillrequireasustainedeffort, characterizedbyacommitmentacrossthescientificmarinecommunities,andcontinualcoordinationamong internationalcounterparts.DOOSwilltakeleadintheneededcoordinationandconsensus-buildingamonga widerangeofplanning,implementation,andusercommunities. 1462 Page 32 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 1464 [thistextwillbeincorporatedintoanotherplaceinthereport] 1465 TheRoleofModels 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 1478 1479 1480 1481 1482 1483 1484 1485 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 Theroleofmodelsandtheirdataneedsareanimportantconsiderationwhendesigningadeepocean observingsystem.First,giventheirroleintrenddetection,somemodelsprovideestimatesofvariablesnot accessiblethroughdirectmeasurements.Theyalsoprovideanextrapolationfunctionextendingobservations andprovidingestimatesofthegranularityneededtoassesssignal-to-noiseratiosofclimaticallysensitive variables.Constrainedbydirectmeasurements,modelsoftenprovidedynamicinterpolationsconsistingof sparseobservationsofmanytypes--withthegoalofprovidingaconsistentdepictionofchangesintheocean. Finally,modelsareapivotalcomponentfordecadaltomulti-centennialpredictionstudies.Theyrequire knowledgeofapplicableinitialdeepoceanconditionsthatareoftenassociatedwithprocessesthatcontrol changesinoceanheatcontentandthestorageoftracers. Asmentionedabove,forthepurposesoftrenddetection,andspatialandtemporalsamplingisanimportant oceanobservingsystemdesignconcern,(WunschandHeimbach2014).Currentmodelanalysisusingformer parameterobservations,suggeststhatinordertobeoptimallyeffective,andinsomeinstancestobe minimallyeffective,someregionsofthedeepoceanmayrequirespatialsamplingbelow2000matfrequencies equaltothatofthecoreArgonetwork,currentlymeasuringabove2000m.Thisissuspectedforspecificeddyactiveregionsthatcouldbeusedtodeterminedeepstericheightvariabilityandlow-frequencytrend detection,(Ponte2012). Next,forthemodelingcommunity,quantificationofthedeepocean’sheatcontentandassociatedtrendsare crucialforclosingtheEarth’senergybudget.Climatemodelsimulationofverticallynon-uniformratesofheat absorptionandstoragemayprovideimportantcluestoresolvingsurfaceheatimbalanceswhichhavebecome apparentinsomestudies,(Meehletal.2011,Palmeretal.2011).Asdemonstratedbythevariabilityamong estimates,attemptstoquantifyheatcontentchangesfrommulti-decadalreanalysis,(e.g.,Cartonand Santorelli2008)orotherwisedata-constrainedmodels(e.g.,SongandColberg2011),whilesuggestingdeep oceanwarming,arehamperedbyverylargeremaininguncertainties,(Stammeretal.2010andMasudaetal. 2010;Kouketsuetal.2011,WunschandHeimbach2014).Despitethis,possiblyduetoreducedproductionof coldanddensedeepandbottomwatersaroundAntarctica,aconsistentpictureemergesacrossdifferent studiesofabyssalwarming.Unfortunately,theseresultsremaindifficulttoreproduceinmodelsgiventhese highlysensitiveprocessesareeithersignificantlyunresolvedorarepoorlyrepresentedinthemodels,(Heuze etal.2013;2015).Theconstraintofmodelswithbetterobservationsisakeytoimprovedprocess representationandforincreasedconfidenceinmodelresults. Thegrowinginterestindecadal-to-centennialscalepredictionsorprojections,(e.g.,Cane,2010)alsoplaces increasinglystringentdemandsonsuitableinitialconditions–asmostcurrentmodelpredictionsare influencedbyartificialmodeldrift,(Hurrelletal.2009;Meehletal.2009).Today,decadalpredictionstudies remaininconclusivegivenuncertaintiesrelatedtowhetherornotdeepoceanconditionshavebeen sufficientlyconstrained.Predictabilitystudiessuggestthatchangesindeepoceandensity(duetoeddynoise) maytriggerresponsesinclimateindicessufficientlylargeenoughtolimittheiraccuracytolessthanadecade, (Zannaetal.2012).Theoceanobservingcommunityischallengedtoconsidertherequirementsofpredictions studiesandaddressthecapacityformodelstoexpandthepredictabilityhorizon. Page 33 1463 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 PART FIVE Strategic Roadmap: DOOS Development and Improvement 1507 1508 1509 1510 Introduction 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520 1521 1522 ThedevelopmentofDOOS,asaprojectinGOOS,willoccurinstages.Acommunity–widesurveyofdeepoceanobservingprograms,activities,andtoolswillbeconducted,andfollowedbyasmallcommunity workshopdesignedtobringtogethermajordeepobservingprogramleaders.ThisworkshopwillinitiateDOOS asa10-yearprograminwhichthedeepoceanresearchcommunitywilldefineanddevelopobservationsof essentialphysical,chemical,geologicalandbiologicalvariables.InadditiontothearticulationofEOVs,DOOS willexplorethesocietalissuesandscientificchallengesthatdrivetheneedforsustainedobservationofthe deepocean.Therewillbeanoverviewoftheobservingelementscurrentlyinplace,whichplatformsand technologiesaremeetingtheneedsofthesystem,andwherethereisaneedforimprovementortechnology development.Therewillalsobeanexplorationoftheimpactandbenefitofastandardizedandopendata policy.Lastly,theworkshopwillexplorestrategiesforachievingintegrationthroughtheidentificationof expertpanelsandimplementationteamsthataremindfuloftheneedsofthedeepoceanobservingsystem overall. 1523 Specificworkshopgoalsareto: 1524 1525 1. Assesstheuses,applications,societalimportanceandrelevanceofdeepobservations. 1526 1527 1528 1529 2. Define the key scientific questions that should be addressed with deep observations. Characterize how shipboard (e.g. Go SHIP) and in-situ (e.g., Deep Argo, Core Argo, Observatories,Gliders)andremotesensingobservingsystemsarecontributingtomeetthese scientificandfunctionalrequirements,andidentifygaps,inefficienciesandvulnerabilities. 1530 1531 3. Review the status of deep observing including an inventory of systems, geographic coverage,andtypesofmeasurements. 1532 4. Reviewandprioritizeexistingandpotentialessentialoceanvariablesindeepwaters. 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 5. Recommend revisions and/or adjustments to the current suite and configuration of observingsystemstoenhancetheirresilienceandrobustnessinordertoproducedatain amorecost-efficientandsustainablemannerfeasiblewithintheanticipatedenvelopeof capability and resources. Determine need for new configurations, geographic locations, waterdepths,fordeepobservingsystems. 1538 6. Identifytechnologydevelopmentneedstofilldatagapsandaddressnewquestions. 1539 1540 7. EvaluatelogisticalrequirementsforimplementationoftherecommendedDeepOcean ObservingStrategy. 1541 1542 a. Assessinterests,aswellaspotentialcontributingcapabilities,ofexistingand newcollaboratorstowardsimplementingDeepOceanObservingStrategyneeds. 1543 1544 1545 1546 b. Recommendstrategies(e.g.,training,developmentassistance,technology transferprogramsandobservingsystemmanagement)toaddresslong-term observingcapabilitiesofpotentialcontributorsinordertoimproverobustness andresilienceofobservationaldatafromtheDeepOceanObservingStrategy. 8. Evaluaterequirementsfordeliveryofdata,andderivedproductsandinformation,inreal timeanddelayedmode(e.g.availability,quality,latency,integration/interoperability); evaluatetheexistingdatasystemsforfitnessforpurpose. CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 34 1548 1549 1550 Page 1547 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 9. Assessreadinessofnewtechnologies,theirpotentialimpactandfeasibilityinaddressing requirements,andtheirpotentialtocontributetowardsaddressinggaps,improving robustness/resilience,and/orloweringcostsperobservationindeepocean;recommend newtechnologieswithgreatestpotentialtomeetcriticalrequirementsandsuggest approachestoimprovethereadinessforinclusioninthesustainedobservingsystem. 1556 1557 1558 10. Develop a report of this workshop, with recommendations on the development of a process for the ongoing evaluation of the observing system. Outcomes may include formationofimplementationortaskteamstopursueDOOSthemes. 1559 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 Byusingahighlycollaborative,EOV-basedapproachtheworkshopwillencourageincreasedpartnerships acrosstheresearchandoperationalcommunities.Thesepartnershipswillworktoalign,assessandimprove thereadinesslevelsofrequirements,technologiesandplatforms,anddataproductsthatareofcommon interesttomultipleGOOScommunities;aswellastoothercommunitiesconductingdeep-oceanobserving activitiesandusingtheoutput. 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 AsubsequentDOOStaskmaybetofacilitatetheprovisionofanobservingsystemevaluationtestbedfornot onlyquantitativelyevaluatingthecurrentobservingsystem,butmanyscenariosofchangesthereto,toguide possiblerestructuringofthepresentsystemandtheintroductionofnewtechnologies.Thiswouldconsistof astateoftheartmodelanddataassimilationthat,ifneededbe,istailoredtodifferentobservables.(i.e.,akin toageneralpurpose“missionsimulator”usingNASAlanguage). 1570 1571 1572 1573 REMINDER:TheDOOSConsultativedraftisavailabletoallmembersofthedeep-oceanscientificand regulatorycommunityforreview,andweencourageinput.Subsequenttotheinitialscopingworkshoptobe heldinDecember2016,aconferenceorworkshopwillbeheldthatisopentoallinterested,withtheintentof broadeningDOOSengagementglobally. 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587 Aspartofthisrevisionprocess,theReporthasbeenpostedonlineforyourreviewandcomment: http://www.deepoceanobserving.org Weaskthatyouprovidethefollowinginyourresponses: • Nameand/oraffiliation(pleasemakeanoteifyouprefertoremainanonymous) • Linereferencenumberalongwithcommentorsuggestedchange • Generalcommentsonthereportcontentand/orstructure • Contactinformationshouldyourcommentsrequirefurtherdiscussion Weaskthatyouemailyourcommentsto:[email protected]. 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PLoS ONE, 6, e24570. 2037 Page 45 2038 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 2039 AppendixA:AuthorsandContributors 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044 2045 2046 2047 2048 2049 2050 2051 2052 2053 2054 2055 2056 2057 2058 2059 2060 2061 2062 2063 2064 2065 2066 ExecutiveCommittee AlbertFischer EricLindstrom Physical/Climate GregoryC.Johnson PatrickHeimbach BernadetteSloyan Carbon/Biogeochemistry TosteTanhua RikWanninkhof Biodiversity/Ecosystems AntjeBoetius LisaLevin MyriamSibuet Contributors SilviaGarzoli MattChurch KarenStocks Advisors OscarSchofield FelixJanssen 2067 Page 46 2068 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 2070 2071 2072 2073 2074 2075 2076 2077 2078 2079 2080 2081 2082 2083 2084 2085 Thisreportarticulatesastrategyformeasuringthedeepoceaninalignmentwiththeguidingprinciplesand practicespromotedinthereporttitled“AFrameworkforOceanObserving,”(preparedbytheTaskTeamfor anIntegratedSustainedOceanObservingSystemestablishedaftertheOceanObservation2009Conferencein Venice,Italy).The“Framework”recommendsthattheoceancommunityadoptasystemengineering approachtowardthecommunity-wideacceptanceofprioritiesandactivitiesassociatedwithanintegrated, sustainedglobaloceanobservingsystem;onethataddressesbothsciencequestionsandsocietalneeds. TheFrameworkapproachasoutlinedinthereport,contendsthattomaintainaglobaloceanobservingsystem thatisfitforpurpose,theoutputsofthesystemmustproperlyaddresstheissuesthatdrovetheoriginalneed tomeasureanoceanvariable,andestablishafeedbackloopofassessmentthatmustbemaintainedby communityagreed-uponprocesses.Inordertoestablishthisconcertedcommunityeffort,thereportalso recommendsthatoceanobservingactivitiesbeorganizedaroundcommunity-definedandselectedEssential OceanVariables(EOVs).AnEOVisdefinedasanelementoftheoceanthattheoceanobservingcommunity agreesmustbemeasuredinordertofurtherscientificunderstandingoftheoceanandEarthsystemsandtheir impactonsociety. 2086 2087 2088 2089 2090 Thisapproachisbasedonlessonslearnedfromtheglobalclimateobservingcommunity,whichmetwithgreat successafterorganizingitseffortsaroundessentialclimatevariables(ECVs).EssentialClimateVariableswere introducedbyGCOSin2004,alongwiththeessentialdatadefinedformeteorologicalservicesbytheWMO andhavegalvanizedtheclimateandweathercommunitiestowardthedevelopmentofamorefully functioningresearchandobservationalglobaloceanobservingsystemforclimate. 2091 2092 2093 2094 2095 2096 2097 2098 2099 2100 2101 2102 2103 2104 2105 2106 2107 2108 2109 2110 2111 2112 2113 2114 2115 2116 BeyondanalignmentaccordingtoEOVs,theFrameworkreportfurthersuggeststhatwhatisrequiredto adequatelymeetscientificandsocietalneedsforaglobalsystem,isthatthecommunityengageinongoing dialogastowhatarethemeasurementrequirementsofanEOV,whataretheobservationalelements (technologiesandtechniques),andwhatarethedataandinformationproductsrequiredtomeetuserneeds. Inmakingtheseassessmentsthecommunity isthenaskedtoevaluatetherequirements, observationalneeds,anddataanddata productsaccordingtotheirreadinesslevels. Generallythisisanassessmentasto whethertheobservingsystemelements underreviewaregloballyrelevantsuchthat theyjustifysustainedfunding. Fromasystemsengineeringperspective,the inputs(measurementrequirements)ofthe systemarebestdescribedintermsofthe environmentalorecosysteminformation neededtoaddressaspecificscientific problemorsocietalissue.Societalissues mayincludeashort-timescaleneedsuchas hazardwarning,oralong-timescaleneedforinformationsuchasknowledgeofecosystemlimitsrequiredto setsustainableusesofoceanresources. Theprocesses(observationelements)arethetechnologyusedtocollectthedataneededtoaddressthese requirements.Theoutputs(dataandinformationproducts)arethesynthesesofoceanobservationsand provideabasisforservicesandinformscientificproblemsordecisionsaboutsocietalissues. 47 AppendixB:ReportMethodology Page 2069 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 AssuggestedaccordingtotheFramework orsystemsapproach,thecriteriafor evaluatingnewcomponentsforpossible inclusionintotheglobaloceanobserving systemisintermsoftheirreadinesslevel. Theselevelsareaddressedinthreebroad categories:concept,pilotandmature. Duringtheconceptphase,ideasare articulatedandpeer-reviewed.Duringthe pilotphase,aspectsofthesystemare testedandmadereadyforglobalscale implementation.Atmaturity,theybecome asustainedpartoftheglobalocean observingsystem. Byusingasystemsapproachtheauthorsof thisreportseektoencourageincreased partnershipsacrosstheoceanresearchand operationalcommunitiesalignedtoassessandimprovethereadinesslevelsofrequirements,observation elements,anddataproductsassociatedwithEOVsproposedforthedeepoceanobservingsystem.Itis expectedthatalignmentwillalsoenhancecollaborationamongdevelopedanddevelopingregions,and promotetheuseofcommonstandardsandbestpracticesaroundtheworld. Page 2134 2135 2136 2137 2138 48 2117 2118 2119 2120 2121 2122 2123 2124 2125 2126 2127 2128 2129 2130 2131 2132 2133 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 2139 2140 AppendixC:DraftStrategyTimeline 2141 • WritingGroupRevisesandUpdatesDOOSConsultativeDraftAugust2016 2142 • SeekcommunityfeedbackonDraftReportandformSteeringCommittee 2143 • ConductDeepObservationInventorySept-Oct.2016 2144 • DOOSDevelopmentworkshoptoformworkinggroupsorteamsthatframespecificgoals 2145 December2016 2146 2147 • Inoneyear: 2148 o Establisheddevelopmentprogram 2149 o IncorporatedDOOSinGCOS,CLIVAR,IMBER,INDEEP,DOSI 2150 • 2151 2154 2155 • Pilotprogramunderway OceanObs2019 o Globalsustainedcoverageinsight 49 2153 o Page 2152 Inthreeyears: CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 2156 AppendixD:DraftEOVTemplate 2157 Prepared by the IOC-GOOS Program Office (2013) 2158 EOV information 2159 2160 • Name of EOV (to explain the concept to a non-specialist, in the case of biology can be an index or a variable) 2161 • Sub-variables (the true scientific variable(s) measured to get at the EOV) 2162 • Derived products (other variables, indices, or indicators) 2163 • Supporting variables (needed to scientifically deliver or interpret this EOV) 2164 • Contact / lead expert(s) 2165 2166 Requirements Setting 2167 • Responsible GOOS Panel (can also be a partner of GOOS) 2168 2169 • Readiness level of the requirement (has it been scientifically-vetted for the main applications below, see FOO Fig. 9): 2170 2171 • Societal Benefit Area(s) / Societal Drivers (why do we measure this EOV? societal justification and link to the EOV. This section may be common amongst several linked EOVs) 2172 2173 • Scientific Context (Why does science need this EOV? For which questions (these may be multiple, and span multiple SBAs / scientific disciplines)? ): 2174 • Phenomena to capture (are there key biological and/or ecological processes to capture? 2175 2176 2177 2178 What are the space and time scales that will need to be captured by observation? Are there characteristic size and functional compositions to be captured? Do these differ between the open ocean and coastal regions? Do different biomes need to be captured and if so how many? What is the signal-to-noise ratio of the phenomena? These may vary depending on each societal benefit target for the EOV) 2179 Observing elements (networks) 2180 (What observing elements measure this EOV presently? Which elements are emerging?) 2181 • Readiness: observing technique 2182 • Readiness: ability to scale globally 2183 • Sub-variables measured: 2184 • Characteristic spatial/temporal scales, size/functional compositions: 2185 • Sensor(s)/techniques: 2186 • Accuracy/uncertainty estimate (units) (e.g. bias/random error) 2187 EOV Data and information creation 2189 2190 • Oversight and coordination (is there a body charged with global coordination of analysis/synthesis products of this EOV? if so are all observing elements included?) 2191 • Readiness level [scope, quality control, scientific oversight / peer review, delivery of products]: 2192 • Data centre/repository: 2193 • Frequency of updating: 2194 • Derived products CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 Page 2188 50 [Make reference to the observing element templates] 2195 AppendixE:Sustainedobservatoriesandobservingstations(SeeSeparateTable) 2196 2197 Page 51 2198 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016 2199 AppendixF:OpenDataPolicyStatement 2200 2201 2202 2203 2204 2205 2206 2207 Effectivemanagementandstorageofdataarefundamentalrequirementsforsuccessfulscientificresearch endeavors,suchthatthefutureofsuccessfuloceanographicresearchwilldependontheavailabilityand clarityoflong-termdatarecords.Alreadytoday,large,multi-investigator,interdisciplinaryprojectsrequirethe timelyavailabilityandsharingofdataandobservations.Implementationofamaturedeepoceandata managementstrategywillresultinthetimelysubmissionofqualitycontrolleddatadirectlytousers,aswellas tolocal,regional,andnationaldatacentersforongoinguse. TheFAIRGuidingPrinciples(fromWilkinsonetal.2016) TobeFindable: 2208 2209 F1.(meta)dataareassignedagloballyuniqueandpersistentidentifier 2210 F2.dataaredescribedwithrichmetadata(definedbyR1below) 2211 F3.metadataclearlyandexplicitlyincludetheidentifierofthedataitdescribes 2212 F4.(meta)dataareregisteredorindexedinasearchableresource TobeAccessible: 2213 2214 2215 A1.(meta)dataareretrievablebytheiridentifierusingastandardizedcommunications protocol 2216 A1.1theprotocolisopen,free,anduniversallyimplementable 2217 2218 A1.2theprotocolallowsforanauthenticationandauthorizationprocedure,where necessary 2219 A2.metadataareaccessible,evenwhenthedataarenolongeravailable TobeInteroperable: 2220 2221 2222 I1.(meta)datauseaformal,accessible,shared,andbroadlyapplicablelanguagefor knowledgerepresentation. 2223 I2.(meta)datausevocabulariesthatfollowFAIRprinciples 2224 I3.(meta)dataincludequalifiedreferencestoother(meta)data TobeReusable: 2225 2226 R1.meta(data)arerichlydescribedwithapluralityofaccurateandrelevantattributes 2227 R1.1.(meta)dataarereleasedwithaclearandaccessibledatausagelicense 2228 R1.2.(meta)dataareassociatedwithdetailedprovenance 2229 R1.3.(meta)datameetdomain-relevantcommunitystandards 2230 52 Page 2231 CONSULTATIVE DRAFT V5: Deep Ocean Observing Strategy, November 2016
