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Antibody
Antibody
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a
large Y-shaped protein produced by B-cells that is
used by the immune system to identify and neutralize
foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses. The
antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign
target, termed an antigen.[1][2] Each tip of the "Y" of
an antibody contains a paratope (a structure analogous
to a lock) that is specific for one particular epitope
(similarly analogous to a key) on an antigen, allowing
these two structures to bind together with precision.
Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can tag a
microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of
the immune system, or can neutralize its target
directly (for example, by blocking a part of a microbe
that is essential for its invasion and survival). The
production of antibodies is the main function of the
humoral immune system.[3]
Antibodies are produced by a type of white blood cell
called a plasma cell. Antibodies can occur in two
physical forms, a soluble form that is secreted from
the cell, and a membrane-bound form that is attached
to the surface of a B cell and is referred to as the B
Each antibody binds to a specific antigen; an interaction similar to a
cell receptor (BCR). The BCR is only found on the
lock and key.
surface of B cells and facilitates the activation of these
cells and their subsequent differentiation into either antibody factories called plasma cells, or memory B cells that
will survive in the body and remember that same antigen so the B cells can respond faster upon future exposure.[4] In
most cases, interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and,
therefore, antibody generation following antigen binding.[5] Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue
fluids, as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms.
Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily; the terms antibody and immunoglobulin
are often used interchangeably.[6] Antibodies are typically made of basic structural units—each with two large heavy
chains and two small light chains. There are several different types of antibody heavy chains, and several different
kinds of antibodies, which are grouped into different isotypes based on which heavy chain they possess. Five
different antibody isotypes are known in mammals, which perform different roles, and help direct the appropriate
immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter.[7]
Though the general structure of all antibodies is very similar, a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely
variable, allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures, or antigen binding sites, to exist. This
region is known as the hypervariable region. Each of these variants can bind to a different target, known as an
antigen.[1] This enormous diversity of antibodies allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of
antigens.[6] The large and diverse population of antibodies is generated by random combinations of a set of gene
segments that encode different antigen binding sites (or paratopes), followed by random mutations in this area of the
antibody gene, which create further diversity.[7][8] Antibody genes also re-organize in a process called class
switching that changes the base of the heavy chain to another, creating a different isotype of the antibody that retains
1
Antibody
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the antigen specific variable region. This allows a single antibody to be used by several different parts of the immune
system.
Forms
Surface immunoglobulin (Ig) is attached to the membrane of the effector B cells by its transmembrane region, while
antibodies are the secreted form of Ig and lack the trans membrane region so that antibodies can be secreted into the
bloodstream and body cavities. As a result, surface Ig and antibodies are identical except for the transmembrane
regions. Therefore, they are considered two forms of antibodies: soluble form or membrane-bound form (Parham
21-22).
The membrane-bound form of an antibody may be called a surface immunoglobulin (sIg) or a membrane
immunoglobulin (mIg). It is part of the B cell receptor (BCR), which allows a B cell to detect when a specific
antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation.[9] The BCR is composed of surface-bound IgD or IgM
antibodies and associated Ig-α and Ig-β heterodimers, which are capable of signal transduction.[10] A typical human
B cell will have 50,000 to 100,000 antibodies bound to its surface.[10] Upon antigen binding, they cluster in large
patches, which can exceed 1 micrometer in diameter, on lipid rafts that isolate the BCRs from most other cell
signaling receptors.[10] These patches may improve the efficiency of the cellular immune response.[11] In humans,
the cell surface is bare around the B cell receptors for several thousand ångstroms,[12] which further isolates the
BCRs from competing influences.
Isotypes
Antibody isotypes of mammals
Name Types
Description
IgA
2
Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract and urogenital tract, and prevents
[13]
colonization by pathogens.
Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk.
IgD
1
Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not been exposed to
[14]
antigens.
It has been shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial
[15]
factors.
IgE
1
Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils, and is
[3]
involved in allergy. Also protects against parasitic worms.
IgG
4
In its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity against invading
[3]
pathogens. The only antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give passive immunity
to fetus.
IgM
1
Expressed on the surface of B cells (monomer) and in a secreted form (pentamer) with very
high avidity. Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of B cell mediated (humoral)
[3][14]
immunity before there is sufficient IgG.
Antibody
Complexes
Antibodies can come in different varieties known as isotypes or classes. In placental mammals there are five
antibody isotypes known as IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG and IgM. They are each named with an "Ig" prefix that stands for
immunoglobulin, another name for antibody, and differ in their biological properties, functional locations and ability
to deal with different antigens, as depicted in the table.[16]
The antibody isotype of a B cell changes during cell development and activation. Immature B cells, which have
never been exposed to an antigen, are known as naïve B cells and express only the IgM isotype in a cell surface
bound form. B cells begin to express both IgM and IgD when they reach maturity—the co-expression of both these
Antibody
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immunoglobulin isotypes renders the B cell 'mature' and ready to respond to antigen.[17] B cell activation follows
engagement of the cell bound antibody molecule with an antigen, causing the cell to divide and differentiate into an
antibody producing cell called a plasma cell. In this activated form, the B cell starts to produce antibody in a secreted
form rather than a membrane-bound form. Some daughter cells of the activated B cells undergo isotype switching, a
mechanism that causes the production of antibodies to change from IgM or IgD to the other antibody isotypes, IgE,
IgA or IgG, that have defined roles in the immune system.
Structure
Antibodies are heavy (~150 kDa) globular plasma proteins. They have sugar chains added to some of their amino
acid residues.[18] In other words, antibodies are glycoproteins. The basic functional unit of each antibody is an
immunoglobulin (Ig) monomer (containing only one Ig unit); secreted antibodies can also be dimeric with two Ig
units as with IgA, tetrameric with four Ig units like teleost fish IgM, or pentameric with five Ig units, like
mammalian IgM.[19]
The variable parts of an antibody are its V regions, and the constant
part is its C region.
Immunoglobulin domains
The Ig monomer is a "Y"-shaped molecule that consists of four
polypeptide chains; two identical heavy chains and two identical light
chains connected by disulfide bonds.[16] Each chain is composed of
structural domains called immunoglobulin domains. These domains
contain about 70-110 amino acids and are classified into different
categories (for example, variable or IgV, and constant or IgC)
according to their size and function.[20] They have a characteristic
immunoglobulin fold in which two beta sheets create a “sandwich”
shape, held together by interactions between conserved cysteines and
other charged amino acids.
Several immunoglobulin domains make up the
two heavy chains (red and blue) and the two light
chains (green and yellow) of an antibody. The
immunoglobulin domains are composed of
between 7 (for constant domains) and 9 (for
variable domains) β-strands.
Antibody
4
Heavy chain
There are five types of mammalian Ig heavy chain denoted by the Greek letters: α, δ, ε, γ, and μ.[1] The type of
heavy chain present defines the class of antibody; these chains are found in IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM antibodies,
respectively.[6] Distinct heavy chains differ in size and composition; α and γ contain approximately 450 amino acids,
while μ and ε have approximately 550 amino acids.[1]
In birds, the major serum antibody, also found in yolk, is called IgY. It
is quite different from mammalian IgG. However, in some older
literature and even on some commercial life sciences product websites
it is still called "IgG", which is incorrect and can be confusing.
Each heavy chain has two regions, the constant region and the variable
region. The constant region is identical in all antibodies of the same
isotype, but differs in antibodies of different isotypes. Heavy chains γ,
α and δ have a constant region composed of three tandem (in a line) Ig
domains, and a hinge region for added flexibility;[16] heavy chains μ
and ε have a constant region composed of four immunoglobulin
domains.[1] The variable region of the heavy chain differs in antibodies
produced by different B cells, but is the same for all antibodies
produced by a single B cell or B cell clone. The variable region of each
heavy chain is approximately 110 amino acids long and is composed of
a single Ig domain.
Light chain
1. Fab region
2. Fc region
3. Heavy chain (blue) with one variable (VH)
domain followed by a constant domain (CH1), a
hinge region, and two more constant (CH2 and
CH3) domains.
4. Light chain (green) with one variable (VL) and
one constant (CL) domain
5. Antigen binding site (paratope)
6. Hinge regions.
In mammals there are two types of immunoglobulin light chain, which
are called lambda (λ) and kappa (κ).[1] A light chain has two successive
domains: one constant domain and one variable domain. The
approximate length of a light chain is 211 to 217 amino acids.[1] Each antibody contains two light chains that are
always identical; only one type of light chain, κ or λ, is present per antibody in mammals. Other types of light chains,
such as the iota (ι) chain, are found in lower vertebrates like Chondrichthyes and Teleostei.
CDRs, Fv, Fab and Fc Regions
Some parts of an antibody have unique functions. The arms of the Y, for example, contain the sites that can bind two
antigens (in general identical) and, therefore, recognize specific foreign objects. This region of the antibody is called
the Fab (fragment, antigen binding) region. It is composed of one constant and one variable domain from each
heavy and light chain of the antibody.[21] The paratope is shaped at the amino terminal end of the antibody monomer
by the variable domains from the heavy and light chains. The variable domain is also referred to as the FV region and
is the most important region for binding to antigens. More specifically, variable loops of β-strands, three each on the
light (VL) and heavy (VH) chains are responsible for binding to the antigen. These loops are referred to as the
complementarity determining regions (CDRs). The structures of these CDRs have been clustered and classified by
Chothia et al. [22] and more recently by North et al.[23] In the framework of the immune network theory, CDRs are
also called idiotypes. According to immune network theory, the adaptive immune system is regulated by interactions
between idiotypes.
The base of the Y plays a role in modulating immune cell activity. This region is called the Fc (Fragment,
crystallizable) region, and is composed of two heavy chains that contribute two or three constant domains depending
on the class of the antibody.[1] Thus, the Fc region ensures that each antibody generates an appropriate immune
response for a given antigen, by binding to a specific class of Fc receptors, and other immune molecules, such as
Antibody
5
complement proteins. By doing this, it mediates different physiological effects including recognition of opsonized
particles, lysis of cells, and degranulation of mast cells, basophils and eosinophils.[16][24]
Function
Further information: Immune system
Activated B cells differentiate into either antibody-producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble antibody
or memory cells that survive in the body for years afterward in order to allow the immune system to remember an
antigen and respond faster upon future exposures.[25]
At the prenatal and neonatal stages of life, the presence of antibodies is provided by passive immunization from the
mother. Early endogenous antibody production varies for different kinds of antibodies, and usually appear within the
first years of life. Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream, they are said to be part of the humoral immune
system. Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen (an
example is a virus capsid protein fragment). Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways: they prevent
pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages
and other cells by coating the pathogen; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune
responses such as the complement pathway.[26]
Activation of complement
The secreted mammalian IgM has five Ig units.
Each Ig unit (labeled 1) has two epitope binding
Fab regions, so IgM is capable of binding up to
10 epitopes.
Antibodies that bind to surface antigens on, for example, a bacterium
attract the first component of the complement cascade with their Fc
region and initiate activation of the "classical" complement system.[26]
This results in the killing of bacteria in two ways.[3] First, the binding
of the antibody and complement molecules marks the microbe for
ingestion by phagocytes in a process called opsonization; these
phagocytes are attracted by certain complement molecules generated in
the complement cascade. Secondly, some complement system
components form a membrane attack complex to assist antibodies to
kill the bacterium directly.[27]
Activation of effector cells
To combat pathogens that replicate outside cells, antibodies bind to
pathogens to link them together, causing them to agglutinate. Since an antibody has at least two paratopes it can bind
more than one antigen by binding identical epitopes carried on the surfaces of these antigens. By coating the
pathogen, antibodies stimulate effector functions against the pathogen in cells that recognize their Fc region.[3]
Those cells which recognize coated pathogens have Fc receptors which, as the name suggests, interacts with the Fc
region of IgA, IgG, and IgE antibodies. The engagement of a particular antibody with the Fc receptor on a particular
cell triggers an effector function of that cell; phagocytes will phagocytose, mast cells and neutrophils will
degranulate, natural killer cells will release cytokines and cytotoxic molecules; that will ultimately result in
destruction of the invading microbe. The Fc receptors are isotype-specific, which gives greater flexibility to the
immune system, invoking only the appropriate immune mechanisms for distinct pathogens.[1]
Antibody
Natural antibodies
Humans and higher primates also produce “natural antibodies” which are present in serum before viral infection.
Natural antibodies have been defined as antibodies that are produced without any previous infection, vaccination,
other foreign antigen exposure or passive immunization. These antibodies can activate the classical complement
pathway leading to lysis of enveloped virus particles long before the adaptive immune response is activated. Many
natural antibodies are directed against the disaccharide galactose α(1,3)-galactose (α-Gal), which is found as a
terminal sugar on glycosylated cell surface proteins, and generated in response to production of this sugar by bacteria
contained in the human gut.[28] Rejection of xenotransplantated organs is thought to be, in part, the result of natural
antibodies circulating in the serum of the recipient binding to α-Gal antigens expressed on the donor tissue.[29]
Immunoglobulin diversity
Virtually all microbes can trigger an antibody response. Successful recognition and eradication of many different
types of microbes requires diversity among antibodies; their amino acid composition varies allowing them to interact
with many different antigens.[30] It has been estimated that humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies,
each capable of binding a distinct epitope of an antigen.[31] Although a huge repertoire of different antibodies is
generated in a single individual, the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the
human genome. Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved that allow vertebrate B cells to generate a
diverse pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes.[32]
Domain variability
The region (locus) of a chromosome that encodes an
antibody is large and contains several distinct genes for
each domain of the antibody—the locus containing
heavy chain genes (IGH@) is found on chromosome
14, and the loci containing lambda and kappa light
chain genes (IGL@ and IGK@) are found on
chromosomes 22 and 2 in humans. One of these
domains is called the variable domain, which is present
in each heavy and light chain of every antibody, but
can differ in different antibodies generated from
The complementarity determining regions of the heavy chain are
[33]
distinct B cells. Differences, between the variable
shown in red (PDB 1IGT
)
domains, are located on three loops known as
hypervariable regions (HV-1, HV-2 and HV-3) or complementarity determining regions (CDR1, CDR2 and CDR3).
CDRs are supported within the variable domains by conserved framework regions. The heavy chain locus contains
about 65 different variable domain genes that all differ in their CDRs. Combining these genes with an array of genes
for other domains of the antibody generates a large cavalry of antibodies with a high degree of variability. This
combination is called V(D)J recombination discussed below.[34]
6
Antibody
7
V(D)J recombination
Somatic recombination of immunoglobulins, also
known as V(D)J recombination, involves the
generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable
region. The variable region of each immunoglobulin
heavy or light chain is encoded in several
pieces—known as gene segments. These segments are
called variable (V), diversity (D) and joining (J)
segments.[32] V, D and J segments are found in Ig
heavy chains, but only V and J segments are found in
Ig light chains. Multiple copies of the V, D and J gene
segments exist, and are tandemly arranged in the
genomes of mammals. In the bone marrow, each
developing B cell will assemble an immunoglobulin
variable region by randomly selecting and combining
one V, one D and one J gene segment (or one V and
one J segment in the light chain). As there are multiple
Simplified overview of V(D)J recombination of immunoglobulin
copies of each type of gene segment, and different
heavy chains
combinations of gene segments can be used to generate
each immunoglobulin variable region, this process generates a huge number of antibodies, each with different
paratopes, and thus different antigen specificities.[7]
After a B cell produces a functional immunoglobulin gene during V(D)J recombination, it cannot express any other
variable region (a process known as allelic exclusion) thus each B cell can produce antibodies containing only one
kind of variable chain.[1][35]
Somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation
For more details on this topic, see Somatic hypermutation and Affinity maturation
Following activation with antigen, B cells begin to proliferate rapidly. In these rapidly dividing cells, the genes
encoding the variable domains of the heavy and light chains undergo a high rate of point mutation, by a process
called somatic hypermutation (SHM). SHM results in approximately one nucleotide change per variable gene, per
cell division.[8] As a consequence, any daughter B cells will acquire slight amino acid differences in the variable
domains of their antibody chains.
This serves to increase the diversity of the antibody pool and impacts the antibody’s antigen-binding affinity.[36]
Some point mutations will result in the production of antibodies that have a weaker interaction (low affinity) with
their antigen than the original antibody, and some mutations will generate antibodies with a stronger interaction
(high affinity).[37] B cells that express high affinity antibodies on their surface will receive a strong survival signal
during interactions with other cells, whereas those with low affinity antibodies will not, and will die by apoptosis.[37]
Thus, B cells expressing antibodies with a higher affinity for the antigen will outcompete those with weaker
affinities for function and survival. The process of generating antibodies with increased binding affinities is called
affinity maturation. Affinity maturation occurs in mature B cells after V(D)J recombination, and is dependent on
help from helper T cells.[38]
Antibody
Class switching
Isotype or class switching is a biological process
occurring after activation of the B cell, which allows
the cell to produce different classes of antibody (IgA,
IgE, or IgG).[7] The different classes of antibody, and
thus effector functions, are defined by the constant (C)
regions of the immunoglobulin heavy chain. Initially,
naïve B cells express only cell-surface IgM and IgD
with identical antigen binding regions. Each isotype is
adapted for a distinct function, therefore, after
activation, an antibody with a IgG, IgA, or IgE effector
function might be required to effectively eliminate an
antigen. Class switching allows different daughter cells
from the same activated B cell to produce antibodies of
different isotypes. Only the constant region of the
Mechanism of class switch recombination that allows isotype
antibody heavy chain changes during class switching;
switching in activated B cells
the variable regions, and therefore antigen specificity,
remain unchanged. Thus the progeny of a single B cell
can produce antibodies, all specific for the same antigen, but with the ability to produce the effector function
appropriate for each antigenic challenge. Class switching is triggered by cytokines; the isotype generated depends on
which cytokines are present in the B cell environment.[39]
Class switching occurs in the heavy chain gene locus by a mechanism called class switch recombination (CSR). This
mechanism relies on conserved nucleotide motifs, called switch (S) regions, found in DNA upstream of each
constant region gene (except in the δ-chain). The DNA strand is broken by the activity of a series of enzymes at two
selected S-regions.[40][41] The variable domain exon is rejoined through a process called non-homologous end
joining (NHEJ) to the desired constant region (γ, α or ε). This process results in an immunoglobulin gene that
encodes an antibody of a different isotype.[42]
Affinity designations
A group of antibodies can be called monovalent (or specific) if they have affinity for the same epitope,[43] or for the
same antigen[44] (but potentially different epitopes on the molecule), or for the same strain of microorganism[44] (but
potentially different antigens on or in it). In contrast, a group of antibodies can be called polyvalent (or unspecific) if
they have affinity for various antigens[44] or microorganisms[44]. Intravenous immunoglobulin, if not otherwise
noted, consists of polyvalent IgG. In contrast, monoclonal antibodies are monovalent for the same epitope.
Medical applications
Disease diagnosis and therapy
Detection of particular antibodies is a very common form of medical diagnostics, and applications such as serology
depend on these methods.[45] For example, in biochemical assays for disease diagnosis,[46] a titer of antibodies
directed against Epstein-Barr virus or Lyme disease is estimated from the blood. If those antibodies are not present,
either the person is not infected, or the infection occurred a very long time ago, and the B cells generating these
specific antibodies have naturally decayed. In clinical immunology, levels of individual classes of immunoglobulins
are measured by nephelometry (or turbidimetry) to characterize the antibody profile of patient.[47] Elevations in
8
Antibody
different classes of immunoglobulins are sometimes useful in determining the cause of liver damage in patients
whom the diagnosis is unclear.[6] For example, elevated IgA indicates alcoholic cirrhosis, elevated IgM indicates
viral hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis, while IgG is elevated in viral hepatitis, autoimmune hepatitis and
cirrhosis. Autoimmune disorders can often be traced to antibodies that bind the body's own epitopes; many can be
detected through blood tests. Antibodies directed against red blood cell surface antigens in immune mediated
hemolytic anemia are detected with the Coombs test.[48] The Coombs test is also used for antibody screening in
blood transfusion preparation and also for antibody screening in antenatal women.[48] Practically, several
immunodiagnostic methods based on detection of complex antigen-antibody are used to diagnose infectious diseases,
for example ELISA, immunofluorescence, Western blot, immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, and magnetic
immunoassay. Antibodies raised against human chorionic gonadotropin are used in over the counter pregnancy tests.
Targeted monoclonal antibody therapy is employed to treat diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis,[49] multiple
sclerosis,[50] psoriasis,[51] and many forms of cancer including non-Hodgkin's lymphoma,[52] colorectal cancer, head
and neck cancer and breast cancer.[53] Some immune deficiencies, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia and
hypogammaglobulinemia, result in partial or complete lack of antibodies.[54] These diseases are often treated by
inducing a short term form of immunity called passive immunity. Passive immunity is achieved through the transfer
of ready-made antibodies in the form of human or animal serum, pooled immunoglobulin or monoclonal antibodies,
into the affected individual.[55]
Prenatal therapy
Rhesus factor, also known as Rhesus D (RhD) antigen, is an antigen found on red blood cells; individuals that are
Rhesus-positive (Rh+) have this antigen on their red blood cells and individuals that are Rhesus-negative (Rh–) do
not. During normal childbirth, delivery trauma or complications during pregnancy, blood from a fetus can enter the
mother's system. In the case of an Rh-incompatible mother and child, consequential blood mixing may sensitize an
Rh- mother to the Rh antigen on the blood cells of the Rh+ child, putting the remainder of the pregnancy, and any
subsequent pregnancies, at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn.[56]
Rho(D) immune globulin antibodies are specific for human Rhesus D (RhD) antigen.[57] Anti-RhD antibodies are
administered as part of a prenatal treatment regimen to prevent sensitization that may occur when a Rhesus-negative
mother has a Rhesus-positive fetus. Treatment of a mother with Anti-RhD antibodies prior to and immediately after
trauma and delivery destroys Rh antigen in the mother's system from the fetus. Importantly, this occurs before the
antigen can stimulate maternal B cells to "remember" Rh antigen by generating memory B cells. Therefore, her
humoral immune system will not make anti-Rh antibodies, and will not attack the Rhesus antigens of the current or
subsequent babies. Rho(D) Immune Globulin treatment prevents sensitization that can lead to Rh disease, but does
not prevent or treat the underlying disease itself.[57]
9
Antibody
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Research applications
Specific antibodies are produced by injecting an antigen into a
mammal, such as a mouse, rat, rabbit, goat, sheep, or horse for
large quantities of antibody. Blood isolated from these animals
contains polyclonal antibodies—multiple antibodies that bind to
the same antigen—in the serum, which can now be called
antiserum. Antigens are also injected into chickens for generation
of polyclonal antibodies in egg yolk.[58] To obtain antibody that is
specific for a single epitope of an antigen, antibody-secreting
lymphocytes are isolated from the animal and immortalized by
fusing them with a cancer cell line. The fused cells are called
hybridomas, and will continually grow and secrete antibody in
culture. Single hybridoma cells are isolated by dilution cloning to
generate cell clones that all produce the same antibody; these
antibodies are called monoclonal antibodies.[59] Polyclonal and
monoclonal antibodies are often purified using Protein A/G or
antigen-affinity chromatography.[60]
Immunofluorescence image of the eukaryotic
cytoskeleton. Actin filaments are shown in red,
microtubules in green, and the nuclei in blue.
In research, purified antibodies are used in many applications. They are most commonly used to identify and locate
intracellular and extracellular proteins. Antibodies are used in flow cytometry to differentiate cell types by the
proteins they express; different types of cell express different combinations of cluster of differentiation molecules on
their surface, and produce different intracellular and secretable proteins.[61] They are also used in
immunoprecipitation to separate proteins and anything bound to them (co-immunoprecipitation) from other
molecules in a cell lysate,[62] in Western blot analyses to identify proteins separated by electrophoresis,[63] and in
immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence to examine protein expression in tissue sections or to locate proteins
within cells with the assistance of a microscope.[61][64] Proteins can also be detected and quantified with antibodies,
using ELISA and ELISPOT techniques.[65][66]
Structure prediction
The importance of antibodies in health care and the biotechnology industry demands knowledge of their structures at
high resolution. This information is used for protein engineering, modifying the antigen binding affinity, and
identifying an epitope, of a given antibody. X-ray crystallography is one commonly used method for determining
antibody structures. However, crystallizing an antibody is often laborious and time consuming. Computational
approaches provide a cheaper and faster alternative to crystallography, but their results are more equivocal since they
do not produce empirical structures. Online web servers such as Web Antibody Modeling (WAM)[67] and Prediction
of Immunoglobulin Structure (PIGS)[68] enables computational modeling of antibody variable regions. Rosetta
Antibody is a novel antibody FV region structure prediction server, which incorporates sophisticated techniques to
minimize CDR loops and optimize the relative orientation of the light and heavy chains, as well as homology models
that predict successful docking of antibodies with their unique antigen.[69]
Antibody
11
History
The first use of the term "antibody" occurred in a text by Paul Ehrlich. The term Antikörper (the German word for
antibody) appears in the conclusion of his article "Experimental Studies on Immunity", published in October 1891,
which states that "if two substances give rise to two different antikörper, then they themselves must be different".[70]
However, the term was not accepted immediately and several other terms for antibody were proposed; these included
Immunkörper, Amboceptor, Zwischenkörper, substance sensibilisatrice, copula, Desmon, philocytase, fixateur, and
Immunisin.[70] The word antibody has formal analogy to the word antitoxin and a similar concept to
Immunkörper.[70]
Angel of the West (2008) by Julian Voss-Andreae is a sculpture based
[71]
on the antibody structure published by E. Padlan.
Created for the
[72]
Florida campus of the Scripps Research Institute
, the antibody is
placed into a ring referencing Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man
thus highlighting the similar proportions of the antibody and the
[73]
human body.
The study of antibodies began in 1890 when Kitasato
Shibasaburō described antibody activity against
diphtheria and tetanus toxins. Kitasato put forward the
theory of humoral immunity, proposing that a mediator
[74][75]
in serum could react with a foreign antigen.
His
idea prompted Paul Ehrlich to propose the side chain
theory for antibody and antigen interaction in 1897,
when he hypothesized that receptors (described as “side
chains”) on the surface of cells could bind specifically
to toxins – in a "lock-and-key" interaction – and that
this binding reaction was the trigger for the production
of antibodies.[76] Other researchers believed that
antibodies existed freely in the blood and, in 1904,
Almroth Wright suggested that soluble antibodies
coated bacteria to label them for phagocytosis and
killing; a process that he named opsoninization.[77]
In the 1920s, Michael Heidelberger and Oswald Avery observed
that antigens could be precipitated by antibodies and went on to
show that antibodies were made of protein.[78] The biochemical
properties of antigen-antibody binding interactions were examined
in more detail in the late 1930s by John Marrack.[79] The next
major advance was in the 1940s, when Linus Pauling confirmed
the lock-and-key theory proposed by Ehrlich by showing that the
interactions between antibodies and antigens depended more on
their shape than their chemical composition.[80] In 1948, Astrid
Fagreaus discovered that B cells, in the form of plasma cells, were
responsible for generating antibodies.[81]
Michael Heidelberger
Further work concentrated on characterizing the structures of the
antibody proteins. A major advance in these structural studies was the discovery in the early 1960s by Gerald
Edelman and Joseph Gally of the antibody light chain,[82] and their realization that this protein was the same as the
Bence-Jones protein described in 1845 by Henry Bence Jones.[83] Edelman went on to discover that antibodies are
composed of disulfide bond-linked heavy and light chains. Around the same time, antibody-binding (Fab) and
antibody tail (Fc) regions of IgG were characterized by Rodney Porter.[84] Together, these scientists deduced the
structure and complete amino acid sequence of IgG, a feat for which they were jointly awarded the 1972 Nobel Prize
in Physiology or Medicine.[84] The Fv fragment was prepared and characterized by David Givol.[85] While most of
these early studies focused on IgM and IgG, other immunoglobulin isotypes were identified in the 1960s: Thomas
Tomasi discovered secretory antibody (IgA)[86] and David S. Rowe and John L. Fahey identified IgD,[87] and IgE
Antibody
was identified by Kimishige Ishizaka and Teruko Ishizaka as a class of antibodies involved in allergic reactions.[88]
Genetic studies identifying the basis of the vast diversity of these antibody proteins when somatic recombination of
immunoglobulin genes was by Susumu Tonegawa in 1976.[89]
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External links
• Mike's Immunoglobulin Structure/Function Page (http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~mrc7/mikeimages.html) at
University of Cambridge
• Antibodies as the PDB molecule of the month (http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/static.do?p=education_discussion/
molecule_of_the_month/pdb21_1.html) Discussion of the structure of antibodies at Protein Data Bank
• Microbiology and Immunology On-line Textbook (http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/mayer/IgStruct2000.htm) at
University of South Carolina
• A hundred years of antibody therapy (http://users.path.ox.ac.uk/~scobbold/tig/new1/mabth.html) History
and applications of antibodies in the treatment of disease at University of Oxford
• How Lymphocytes Produce Antibody (http://www.cellsalive.com/antibody.htm) from Cells Alive!
• Antibody applications (http://www.ii.bham.ac.uk/clinicalimmunology/CISimagelibrary/) Fluorescent
antibody image library, University of Birmingham
15
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Antibody Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=474554277 Contributors: 8472, A930913, AdamRetchless, AdrianaW, Afluent Rider, Ahoerstemeier, Aka042, Akhil999in,
Akira1984, Alansohn, Amyraymond, AnakngAraw, Anoopsinha, Anypodetos, AppleMacReporter, Appraiser, Arcadian, Argrig, ArielGold, Aroopsircar, Arthena, Audchen, Babajobu, Banus,
Baronnet, Barticus88, Bassem18, Bdonlan, Ben Ben, Bentogoa, BigrTex, Bio-pilot, Bioinformin, Bob247, Bobblehead, Bobo192, Boghog, Bongwarrior, Boothy443, BostonBiochem,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Antibody.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antibody.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fvasconcellos 19:03, 6 May 2007 (UTC)
File:Mono-und-Polymere.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mono-und-Polymere.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Martin
Brändli (brandlee86)
File:Antibody IgG2.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antibody_IgG2.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was TimVickers at en.wikipedia
File:Immunoglobulin basic unit.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Immunoglobulin_basic_unit.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
Contributors: user:Y_tambe
File:IgM white background.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IgM_white_background.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original
uploader was TimVickers at en.wikipedia
File:Complementarity determining regions.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Complementarity_determining_regions.PNG License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Anypodetos
File:VDJ recombination.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VDJ_recombination.png License: Public Domain Contributors: gustavocarra after en:Ciar
File:Class switch recombination.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Class_switch_recombination.png License: Public Domain Contributors: EN:User:Ciar
File:FluorescentCells.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FluorescentCells.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amada44, DO11.10, Emijrp, Hannes Röst,
Liaocyed, NEON ja, Origamiemensch, Sentausa, Splette, Timur lenk, Tolanor, Túrelio, 8 anonymous edits
File:AngeloftheWest.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AngeloftheWest.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Julian Voss-Andreae
(Julianva at en.wikipedia)
File:Michael Heidelberger 1954.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Michael_Heidelberger_1954.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: photograph by Harold Low,
"Gift. Dr. Heidelberger."
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