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Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell). It also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing, through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually similar to the one elicited by the potent stimulus. These basic facts, which require many qualifications (see below), were first studied in detail by Ivan Pavlov through experiments with dogs. Together with operant conditioning, classical conditioning became the foundation of behaviorism, a school of psychology which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of psychological therapy and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning is now the best understood of the basic learning processes, and its neural substrates are beginning to be understood. Behaviorism is a school of psychology that views all behaviors as learned. Classical conditioning is a form of behaviorism in which a specific stimulus produces a predictable response. The most common example is when dogs smell food that causes them to salivate. When a bell is rung at every meal, the dogs will begin to salivate in response to the bell, even when food is not present. Classical conditioning can play different roles in the classroom. Teachers looking to use behavioral techniques to reinforce learning are more likely to use operant conditioning techniques. Operant conditioning involves punishments and rewards. This could be done quite simply by a teacher offering a reward (for example, praise) for a job well done or punishment (extra homework) for failure to do well. Classical conditioning may not be used as directly, but often can work along with operant conditioning to reinforce learning. For instance, if the overall tone of a teacher’s classroom is one of praise and enjoyment in learning, the student will associate this pleasure with the specific class and will be more likely to attend. Students who have learned to associate threatening or fearful situations with classroom experiences can have a more difficult time. For instance, students often pair mathematical exams with test anxiety and pressure. This conditioned response may be based on early experiences in grade school, where a child was, for instance, given a high-pressure, timed exam. Even when she is older, the student may have autonomic responses, such as sweating and increased heart rate, when simply thinking about taking an exam or when faced with difficult math problems. In the classroom, teachers can be cognizant of the effects of classical conditioning on test anxiety and create a learning and test environment that reinforces a feel of calm and focus. When a student takes tests in a low pressure, positive environment over time, the classically conditioned response will become “extinguished,” or disappear. It is important to remember that unlike operant conditioning, classical conditioning cannot be suppressed by will power alone. Reactions connected to classical conditioning are involuntary. It is possible to suppress behaviors, but not the urges associated with them. For instance, if a teacher uses candy to positively reinforce correct answers, students will (classically) pair success with the taste of sugar. If the teacher then stops using candy, even if she explains the reasoning of the change to the students, they will likely still crave sugar when giving positive answers. How To Use Operant conditioning in your classroom Operant conditioning (also called "instrumental conditioning") is a type of learning in which (a) the strength of a behavior is modified by the behavior's .. Discipline is important for a child's success and development - most teaching staff would vouch for that. It's easy to think that discipline is always a form of punishment, but in truth, this doesn't have to be the case. Operant conditioning encourages positive reinforcement, which can be applied in the classroom environment to get the good behavior you want - and need - from your pupils. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning uses both positive and negative reinforcements to encourage good and wanted behavior whilst deterring bad and unwanted behavior. Psychologists have observed that we every action has a consequence, and if this is good, the person is more likely to do it again in the future. However, if the consequence isn't so great, it is likely the individual will avoid doing it in a similar situation next time round. It is through this process that we develop our behaviors and begin to understand what is appropriate and useful, and what isn't. Used in a variety of situations, operant conditioning has been found to be particularly effective in the classroom environment. One of the main ways of reinforcing a behavior is through praise, as the following example illustrates. Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioral psychology. While both result in learning, the processes are quite different. In order to understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to understand how classical conditioning and operant conditioning differ from one another. Classical Conditioning First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors Operant Conditioning First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors How Classical Conditioning Works Even if you are not a psychology student, you have probably at least heard about Pavlov's dogs. In his famous experiment, Ivan Pavlov noticed dogs began to salivate in response to a tone after the sound had been repeatedly paired with presenting food. Pavlov quickly realized that this was a learned response and set out to further investigate the conditioning process. Classical conditioning involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food). This unconditioned stimulus naturally and automatically triggers salivating as a response to the food, which is known as the unconditioned response. After associating the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the bell alone will start to evoke salivating as a response. The sound of the bell is now known as the conditioned stimulus and salivating in response to the bell is known as the conditioned response. How Operant Conditioning Works Operant conditioning focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease a behavior. Through this process, an association is formed between the behavior and the consequences for that behavior. For example, imagine that a trainer is trying to teach a dog to fetch a ball. When the dog successful chases and picks up the ball, the dog receives praise as a reward. When the animal fails to retrieve the ball, the trainer withholds the praise. Eventually, the dog forms an association between his behavior of fetching the ball and receiving the desired reward. The Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary. Classical conditioning involves associating between an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating between a voluntary behavior and a consequence In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Also, remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished. For operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a behavior which can then be either rewarded or punished. Classical conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with some sort of already naturally occurring event. Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by teachers, parents, psychologists, animal trainers, and many others. In animal conditioning, a trainer might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same response that the taste of food would. In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as rewards for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type of reward such as a treat or extra play time. In each of these instances, the goal of conditioning is to produce some sort of change in behavior. Educational Applications In the conventional learning situation operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance. A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g. compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio produces the highest response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initially reinforcement (e.g. praise) occurs at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced. For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional answers will be praised. Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to them). Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However it is important to vary the type of reinforcement given, so that the behavior is maintained. This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.