Download Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) refers to a
learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously
neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell). It also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing,
through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually similar
to the one elicited by the potent stimulus. These basic facts, which require many qualifications (see
below), were first studied in detail by Ivan Pavlov through experiments with dogs. Together
with operant conditioning, classical conditioning became the foundation of behaviorism, a school of
psychology which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the
practice of psychological therapy and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning is now the
best understood of the basic learning processes, and its neural substrates are beginning to be
understood.
Behaviorism is a school of psychology that views all behaviors as learned. Classical conditioning
is a form of behaviorism in which a specific stimulus produces a predictable response. The most
common example is when dogs smell food that causes them to salivate. When a bell is rung at
every meal, the dogs will begin to salivate in response to the bell, even when food is not present.
Classical conditioning can play different roles in the classroom.
Teachers looking to use behavioral techniques to reinforce learning are more likely to use
operant conditioning techniques. Operant conditioning involves punishments and rewards. This
could be done quite simply by a teacher offering a reward (for example, praise) for a job well
done or punishment (extra homework) for failure to do well. Classical conditioning may not be
used as directly, but often can work along with operant conditioning to reinforce learning. For
instance, if the overall tone of a teacher’s classroom is one of praise and enjoyment in learning,
the student will associate this pleasure with the specific class and will be more likely to attend.
Students who have learned to associate threatening or fearful situations with classroom
experiences can have a more difficult time. For instance, students often pair mathematical exams
with test anxiety and pressure. This conditioned response may be based on early experiences in
grade school, where a child was, for instance, given a high-pressure, timed exam. Even when she
is older, the student may have autonomic responses, such as sweating and increased heart rate,
when simply thinking about taking an exam or when faced with difficult math problems. In the
classroom, teachers can be cognizant of the effects of classical conditioning on test anxiety and
create a learning and test environment that reinforces a feel of calm and focus. When a student
takes tests in a low pressure, positive environment over time, the classically conditioned
response will become “extinguished,” or disappear.
It is important to remember that unlike operant conditioning, classical conditioning cannot be
suppressed by will power alone. Reactions connected to classical conditioning are involuntary. It
is possible to suppress behaviors, but not the urges associated with them. For instance, if a
teacher uses candy to positively reinforce correct answers, students will (classically) pair success
with the taste of sugar. If the teacher then stops using candy, even if she explains the reasoning
of the change to the students, they will likely still crave sugar when giving positive answers.
How To Use Operant conditioning in your classroom
Operant conditioning (also called "instrumental conditioning") is a type of learning in which (a) the
strength of a behavior is modified by the behavior's ..
Discipline is important for a child's success and development - most teaching staff
would vouch for that. It's easy to think that discipline is always a form of punishment,
but in truth, this doesn't have to be the case. Operant conditioning encourages
positive reinforcement, which can be applied in the classroom environment to get the
good behavior you want - and need - from your pupils.
Skinner's theory of operant conditioning uses both positive and negative
reinforcements to encourage good and wanted behavior whilst deterring bad and
unwanted behavior. Psychologists have observed that we every action has a
consequence, and if this is good, the person is more likely to do it again in the future.
However, if the consequence isn't so great, it is likely the individual will avoid doing it
in a similar situation next time round. It is through this process that we develop our
behaviors and begin to understand what is appropriate and useful, and what isn't.
Used in a variety of situations, operant conditioning has been found to be particularly
effective in the classroom environment. One of the main ways of reinforcing a
behavior is through praise, as the following example illustrates.
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts central
to behavioral psychology. While both result in learning, the processes
are quite different. In order to understand how each of these behavior
modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to understand
how classical conditioning and operant conditioning differ from one
another.
Classical Conditioning

First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist

Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex

Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors
Operant Conditioning

First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist

Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior

Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors
How Classical Conditioning Works
Even if you are not a psychology student, you have probably at least heard about Pavlov's dogs.
In his famous experiment, Ivan Pavlov noticed dogs began to salivate in response to a tone after
the sound had been repeatedly paired with presenting food. Pavlov quickly realized that this was
a learned response and set out to further investigate the conditioning process.
Classical conditioning involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell)
with an unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food).
This unconditioned stimulus naturally and automatically triggers salivating as a response to the
food, which is known as the unconditioned response. After associating the neutral stimulus and
the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the bell alone will start to evoke salivating as a
response. The sound of the bell is now known as the conditioned stimulus and salivating in
response to the bell is known as the conditioned response.
How Operant Conditioning Works
Operant conditioning focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment to increase or
decrease a behavior. Through this process, an association is formed between the behavior and the
consequences for that behavior. For example, imagine that a trainer is trying to teach a dog to
fetch a ball. When the dog successful chases and picks up the ball, the dog receives praise as a
reward. When the animal fails to retrieve the ball, the trainer withholds the praise. Eventually,
the dog forms an association between his behavior of fetching the ball and receiving the desired
reward.
The Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning
One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant
conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary. Classical
conditioning involves associating between an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant
conditioning is about associating between a voluntary behavior and a consequence
In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning
involves no such enticements. Also, remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part
of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform
some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished. For operant conditioning to work, the
subject must first display a behavior which can then be either rewarded or punished. Classical
conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with some sort of already
naturally occurring event.
Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by teachers,
parents, psychologists, animal trainers, and many others. In animal conditioning, a trainer might
utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food.
Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same response that the taste
of food would.
In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as rewards
for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type of reward such as
a treat or extra play time. In each of these instances, the goal of conditioning is to produce some
sort of change in behavior.
Educational Applications
In the conventional learning situation operant conditioning applies largely to issues of
class and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to
shaping skill performance.
A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g.
compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio produces the
highest response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initially reinforcement
(e.g. praise) occurs at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement
occurs less frequently, until eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced.
For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they
should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct).
Gradually the teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over
time only exceptional answers will be praised.
Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be
extinguished through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by
having attention drawn to them).
Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However it is
important to vary the type of reinforcement given, so that the behavior is maintained.
This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much
about the way to behave.