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Be Able to Apply Every Term to Your own Life. We look at three types of learning 1.Classical Conditioning (Pavlov/Watson) 2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner) 3. Observational Learning (Bandura) Learning • A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience Associative Learning = learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning). Behavioral or Learning Perspective is least concerned about causes of Behaviors Unit 6-Learning Review-Behavioral Perspective Classical Conditioning-Pavlov Russian Physiologist- digestion in dogs • UCS (Natural-food) • UCR (Natural to UCR-Salivation) • CS (Paired with-UCS-food and bell – Neutral -CS) RESULT= • CR (Salivation is Result of CS-bell) Figure 6.1 Classical conditioning apparatus n Some Natural Reactions Real Life Classical/Pavlonian Conditioning • You see him or her (UCS) your hear beats, you get nervous, butterflies in your stomach (UCR). This love wears AXE (CS that is paired with UCS=him). You are walking down the hall, you smell AXE (CS), you get nervous and get butterflies (CR) in your stomach. The UCR and CR are always the same= Butterflies Classical Conditioning: More Terminology • Trial = pairing of UCS (food) and CS (bell) • Acquisition = initial stage in learning • Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and space • The CS (once a neutral stimulus) must occur before the UCS in Classical Conditioning=usually a few seconds is best Figure 6.3 Classical conditioning of a fear response Processes in Classical Conditioning • Extinction=disappearance of a conditioned response Cause=no pairing of UCS (food) and CS (bell) over time • Spontaneous Recovery-reappearance of an extinguished response • Stimulus Generalization-responding same way to the stimuli similar (a buzzer) to CS (Bell) • Discrimination-not responding to similar stimuli as the CS-only respond to the original bell tone • Higher-order conditioning-conditioned stimulus function as if it were an unconditioned stimulus= bell tone used to condition dog to salivate to a light Figure 6.10 Higher-order conditioning Little Albert Watson Father of BehaviorismFirst to use Classical Conditioning on Human UCS=Loud sound UR=Fear CS=Furry Bunny CR=Fear Generalization=all furry things Classical Conditioning aversive conditioning = punishment /unpleasant stimulation used to reduce the frequency of an undesirable response; learn to associate something negative with what I enjoy, but the enjoyed “thing” is bad EX: I snap the rubber band on my wrist when I curse Alcohol spiked with nausea producing substance Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Learning (Thorndike) • *Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – Law of Effect – behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened (have a better chance of occurring in future); behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakened. Did pioneering work on how cats learn • Premack Principle=using high probability behaviors (watching television) to reward low probability behaviors (Doing homework)/ Use something I like to do to reward something I don’t like to do Operant ConditioningBF Skinner (1953) • A form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences • Criticism of Skinner=Felt Environment causes behavior-Did not consider cognitive processes or how thoughts impact learning Operant Conditioning • B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of *reinforcement =occurs when an event (you answer teachers question) following a response (candy) increases an organism’s tendency to make that response (answering questions) –Operant chamber or Skinner Box Unit 6 –Learning Review Operant Conditioning – BF Skinner Goal of Reinforcement =increase behaviors Positive Reinforcement=increase behavior (buckling seat belt); money pops out of dash(reward) Response to a reward is called an Operant Response Negative Reinforcement=increases behavior by removing a noxious stimulus (seat belt buzz, I buckle; painful sound ends) Schedules of reinforcement 1. Continuous best for new learning INTERMITTANT Interval=amount of time that passes between rewards Ratio= #of responses need before a reward 2. Fixed Ratio Set # of responses prior to reward 3. Fixed Interval Set Amount of time Prior to reward 4. Varied Ratio Average # of responses before reward 5. Varied Interval Average amount of time passes before reward 1. every time rolls over 2. dog rolls over 3X 3. After 2 minutes 4. after an average of 3Xs 5. Average of every 1.5 minutes VARIED MOST RESISTANT TO EXTINCTION More on Operant Conditioning Acquisition= initial stages of learning influenced by Shaping= reward close behaviors (successive approximations) to desired behavior (ex. Potty training) Chaining=rewarding a series of behaviors Discrimination= only responding to the original reward Or only picks round peg, as trained, from many pegs Generalization= Responding to any peg, regardless of shape..(learning that spoons are table wear, but realizing that forks are table wear) Extinction= no reward given in Operant Conditioning, so response stops=child stops throwing tantrum when does not get attention; child in class no longer misbehaves when ignored Unit 6 Learning • Robert Rescorla’scontingency model of classical conditioning=cognition plays a role in conditioning-must realize my behavior leads to outcome • Latent learning= using things learned at a later time then when learned (esp. with modeling) • Learned helplessness (Seligman)= do not try since your actions do not result in good outcome • Biofeedback = use awareness of physiological responses to change those responses • Habituation=No longer react to a repeated stimuli Figure 6.13 Skinner box and cumulative recorder Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses • Primary Reinforcers –Satisfy biological needs • Secondary Reinforcers are –Conditioned reinforcers= learned (money, good grades, attention, cars, etc…) Consequences: Reinforcement • Escape learning-response that ends an aversive stimuli (shock) • Avoidance learning-an aversive stimuli is prevented from occurring Figure 6.19 Escape and avoidance learning Figure 6.18 Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement Operant Conditioning • Decreasing a response: –Punishment (consequences weaken a response) 1. Positive Punishment(give something-spanking) 2. Negative Punishment(take something-car, driver’s license; grounded for a week) Figure 6.20 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning – *Preparedness (Seligman1971) we are predisposed to be conditioned in certain ways but not in others-Certain phobias are more common than others: Most Common Phobias-Snakes, spiders, heights, darkness-Most common Phobias Even after painful experiences with knifes, hot stove and electrical outlets, fears are infrequent. Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning • Biological Constraints on Conditioning – Instinctive Drift-animals instincts interfere with conditioning (raccoons and rubbing pennies) – Conditioned Taste Aversion (aka-Garcia Effect, 1989- When a food is paired with nausea, even hours later, we still avoid that food and do not relate the nausea to other stimuli present (our girlfriend, our parents, a fork) Both of the above protect us. Figure 6.22 Conditioned taste aversion Recognizing Cognitive Processes in Conditioning • Cognitive Influences on Conditioning Robert Rescorla realized it was more than just mindless mechanism-Response-outcome relations ( animals can learn the predictability of an event)----A response followed by a positive outcome is more likely if the person or animal thinks the response caused the outcome. – I realize my perfume and dressing caused me to get attention; I do it again..I have to realize, make the cognitive realization Albert Bandura-Observational Learning Observational Learning (also called Social Learning Theory): Basic Processes • Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) – Observational learning –we learn by watching and imitating models – Vicarious conditioning-classical and operant conditioning takes place vicariously, through observational learning (You start to respond to my questions because you saw others get candy) Figure 6.25 Observational learning Bandura’s BoBo Doll Experiment and observational learning *Showed that children learned to be aggressive by watching aggression Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial vs Antisocial Effects • Prosocial effects • Antisocial effects Other Important Learning Concepts Insight Learning-sudden solution to a problem, an “ahha” experience (Kohler-banana in ceiling experiment) Cognitive Maps-Tolman-a mental representation in the brain of the layout of the environment-rats took shorter paths (with food present) in a maze because they remembered cognitive maps o the maze when they were in there with no food present-Tolman called this: latent learning • The Overjustification Effect external rewards diminish intrinsic motivations (I love reading; school gives prize for summer reading; I don’t enjoy reading as much) • Token Economy