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Learning How do we learn? Why do we learn? Basic Survival Learning allows us to adapt to a changing environment What is learning? Any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience Two major types of learning: Associative Learning o Classical Conditioning o Operant Conditioning Observational Learning Association - Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence Over 2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested 4 laws of association 200 years ago Locke and Hume reiterated these laws Law of Contiguity - 2 stimuli that occur to together in time will automatically become associated Stimulus-Stimulus Learning - Learning to associate one stimulus with another Response-Consequence Learning -Learning to associate a response with a consequence Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus Sometimes called “reflexive learning” or respondent conditioning The Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, and his dogs circa 1905 Discovered classical conditioning by serendipity Received the Nobel Prize in science for discovery Classical Conditioning: Definitions Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that has the ability to produce a specified response before conditioning begins (Food) Unconditioned Response (UCR): the response produced by the UCS (Salivation). Conditioned Stimulus (CS): an initially neutral stimulus that comes to produce a new conditioned response because it is associated with the UCS (Bell) Conditioned Response (CR): the response produced by the CS. (Salivation from bell alone) Acquisition :The initial learning of the stimulus/response link Key factors: Time interval between CS and UCS (Stimulus Contiguity) Extinction: CR is weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS Pavlov rang the bell but did not present food, and the dog stopped salivating Spontaneous Recovery :CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning When Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated again Generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS Discrimination: Process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others Applications Fearful emotional reactions: Phobias Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert Counterconditioning Associate CS with new, incompatible CR CS paired with new UCS Applications Alcoholism - Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively) by reversing their positiveassociations with alcohol Advertising - Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom Instrumental Learning or Operant Conditioning A behavior that cannot be learned through classical conditioning It is not instinctive or learned naturally It has a low probability of occurring spontaneously It is a voluntary behavior that is learned through many of the principles of operant conditioning E.L. Thorndike considered to be the father of educational psychology and described many basic learning principles around the turn of the 20th Cent. Thorndike’s Laws He formulated a theory of “connectionism” with 2 laws Stimulus (S) and Response (R) connections or associations Thorndike’s Law of Exercise - S-R bonds are strengthened by repetition Thorndike’s Law of Effect Learning = Behavior + Consequences S-R bonds are stamped in or strengthened by rewards or satisfactions B.F. Skinner and others advanced Thorndike’s ideas and developed the field of operant conditioning Operant Conditioning: is a form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences Skinner believed that learning is learning the consequences of behavior or responding Reinforcement Reinforcement: Any stimulus event that increases the probability of a behavior or response Operant Chamber Skinner developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning The operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response. Shaping: the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response Types of Reinforcements Positive and Negative Reinforcers Primary & Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers: events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. Secondary Reinforcers: events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with the primary reinforcers Punishment - A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur Concerns with Punishment Doesn’t teach the correct behavior in a given situation Harsh punishment teaches aggressive behavior Harsh punishment is often ineffective at producing behavior change Harsh punishment leads to negative emotional reactions Timing: Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior Reinforcement Schedules Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later Generalization- Stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response Responding occurs to similar stimuli Discrimination - Stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced Extinction and spontaneous recovery Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops Schedules of Reinforcements Timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced Ratio – refers to the # of responses needed Interval – refers to the amount of time Fixed or variable Fixed-ratio schedule (FR): Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Leads to a high rate of performance, drop off after reinforcement Variable-ratio schedule (VR): Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses High rate of performance and most resistant to extinction Fixed-interval schedule (FI): Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. Lower rate of responding, scalloping effect Variable-interval schedule (VI): Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals Moderately steady responses, more resistance to extinction Applications Behavior Modification (Management) Programs: Using operant conditioning principles to change human behavior Many institutions (schools, mental hospitals, group homes, prisons) use token economics (rewards and punishments) Training our pets Parents use rewards and time outs programmed instruction and computer assisted instruction all work based on operant conditioning principles Used in industry to reinforce safety behavior Behavior therapy – phobia, addictions