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PSYCHOLOGY
(8th Edition)
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2006
1
Learning
Chapter 8
Prominent researchers — Pavlov,
Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner — have
greatly influenced today’s thinking about
how learning takes place. This program
examines the basic principles of classical
and operant conditioning elaborated by
these renowned figures. With Dr. Howard
Rachlin of the State University of New
York at Stony Brook and Dr. Robert Ader
of the University of Rochester. Updated.
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Learning
How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning



Pavlov’s Experiments
Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
Pavlov’s Legacy
Operant Conditioning

Skinner’s Experiments

Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner’s Legacy

Contrasting Classical & Operant Conditioning
Learning by Observation

Bandura’s Experiments

Applications of Observational Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent
change in an organism’s behavior
due to experience.
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How Do We Learn?
We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in
sequence. 2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this law of association. Then
200 years ago Locke and Hume reiterated this law.
Learning => relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience /
association
TYPES OF
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
LEARNING
Observational
Learning
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Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Observational
Learning
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Classical Conditioning
Sovfoto
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old
philosophical theories. However, it was the
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated
classical conditioning. His work provided a basis
for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F.
Skinner.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
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Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the
tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
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Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
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Operant & Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning
forms associations
between stimuli (CS
and US). Operant
conditioning, on the
other hand, forms an
association between
behaviors and the
resulting events.
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Stimulus-Stimulus Learning
Learning to associate one stimulus
with another.
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Stimulus-Stimulus Learning
Learning to associate one stimulus
with another.
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Response-Consequence Learning
Learning to associate a response
with a consequence.
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Response-Consequence Learning
Learning to associate a response
with a consequence.
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Classical Conditioning = > Pavlovian Conditioning => type of conditioning in which an organism comes to associate
stimuli. A NEUTRAL stimulus that after learning signals a conditioned (learned) response.
Unconditioned Stimulus => a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally / automatically) triggers some type of response
Unconditioned Response => the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS. See Chickie and Pete’s 
Neutral Stimulus => produces NO response
Conditioned Stimulus => an originally irrelevant stimulus that once paired w/ UCS eventually triggers a response
Conditioned Response => the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus
Jim trains Dwight video
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“…Can!”
Label the following:
1.UCS
2.UCR
3.CS
4.CR
Describe the different phenomena associated with the learning that you observed in
essay format below:
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Based on the activity and your observations explain the following:
Acquisition =
Stimulus Generalization =
Stimulus Discrimination =
Extinction =
Spontaneous recovery =
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Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial stage in classical
conditioning in which an association between a
neutral stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus takes place.
1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the
neutral stimulus needs to come before the
unconditioned stimulus.
2. The time in between the two stimuli should
be about half a second.
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Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before the US
for acquisition to occur.
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Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS
(tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and
eventually causes extinction.
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Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation)
spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists
alone, the CR becomes extinct again.
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Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to
stimuli similar to the CS is
called generalization. Pavlov
conditioned the dog’s
salivation (CR) by using
miniature vibrators (CS) on
the thigh. When he
subsequently stimulated
other parts of the dog’s
body, salivation dropped.
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Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that
do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
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Criticisms of Pavlov’s Theory
Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or
mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology.
However, they underestimated the importance of
cognitive processes and biological constraints.
learning is constrained by an
animal’s biology…
However, later behaviorists suggested that
animals learn the predictability of a stimulus,
meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of
a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988).
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Biological Predispositions
Courtesy of John Garcia
Garcia showed that the duration
between the CS and the US may be
long (hours), but yet result in
conditioning. A biologically adaptive
CS (taste) led to conditioning and not
to others (light or sound).
John Garcia
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Biological Predispositions
Even humans can develop classically to
conditioned nausea.
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Pavlov’s Legacy
Pavlov’s greatest contribution
to psychology is isolating
elementary behaviors from
more complex ones through
objective scientific
procedures.
Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
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Applications of Classical
Conditioning
Brown Brothers
Watson used classical
conditioning
procedures to develop
advertising campaigns
for a number of
organizations,
including Maxwell
House, making the
“coffee break” an
American custom.
John B. Watson
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•Learning to Like => TV ADS
•Learning to Fear
•An object comes to be feared after being linked
with a frightening stimulus
•irrational fears of particular things, activities, or
situations: high places, closed places, public
places
Little Albert
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•An 11-month old boy – named “Albert” – was
conditioned to fear a white laboratory rat
•Each time he reached for the rat, Watson made a loud
clanging noise right behind Albert
•Albert’s fear generalized to anything white and furry
Including rabbits and Santa Claus
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NS
“Little Albert”
RAT
Loud noise
UR
NO
FEAR
CS
US
CR
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•In classical conditioning, the process of pairing
a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that
elicits a response that is incompatible with an
unwanted conditioned response.
• fears and anxieties can be unlearned through Classical Conditioning
•Desensitization Therapy – deep muscle relaxation techniques with
degrees of anxiety levels (0-100)
•Freud
Unresolved inner conflicts = phobia represents other
problems that is troubling the patient
=> Classical Conditioning is selective
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Preparedness and Contrapreparedness
(Seligman – Evolutionary Psych Perspective)
Some stimuli are more suited to produce a
fearful response
=>Common objects of phobias are related to
survival of humans through evolution (dark, heights,
snakes, etc.) + our own personal experience
influence our fears (handguns, outlets, foods, etc)
Both interact to increase likelihood of certain
kinds of conditioning and making other kinds less
likely
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Conditioned food/taste aversion
-eat something => get sick for some reason = avoid it
Can be a long time b/w CS (food) and US (illness)
CR can last a long time –days, months, years
Humans – food aversion to taste, smell,
appearance
Ex. Mr. Oz eating homemade chicken salad and
getting sick
Ex. Drinking alcohol & getting sick
DID You KNOW…nausea = #1 cause for food aversion!
•Reacting to Medical Treatments
*Placebo effect vs. mind over matter?
+/ 34
Applications of Classical
Conditioning
1. Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively)
by reversing their positive-associations with
alcohol.
2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus
its taste) that affects the immune response
may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the
immune response.
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nderestimated the importance of cognitive processes (thoughts, perceptions, expectations) of biological
constraints on learning capacity
redictabillity = 2 significant events occur close together in time an animal can predict the 2nd event
id you know? The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response will be
nimals learn an awareness or expectancy of how likely it is that the UCS will occur
he environment and evolutionary history or biological predispositions make it easy for particular
associations which enhance an animal’s survival
f you become ill after eating mussels, you will probably have a hard time eating them again
ow I have a food aversion to chicken
arcia and Koelling are 2 famous experimenters who taught us much about conditioning and learning
eople tend to fear snakes and spiders rather than flowers b/c such animals can harm us more
frequently than do flowers…Seligman – Preparedness vs. contrapreparedness
nimals and humans are prepared to learn things crucial for their survival => Darwin’s theory of
natural selection, and thus learning enables them to adapt to their environments
iolent loud noises (UCS) were paired with a white rat (NS=>CS) to show how a specific fear might be
conditioned
ittle Albert became Watson and Rayner’s famous experiment
ne phobia => fear of a white rat would later be GENERALIZED by Albert to fear almost anything
white and / or furry ie. Rabbit, beard etc.
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INI, VIDI, VICI PAVLOV’s Legacy! 
Operant & Classical Conditioning
2. Classical conditioning involves respondent
behavior that occurs as an automatic
response to a certain stimulus. Operant
conditioning involves operant behavior, a
behavior that operates on the environment,
producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.
Big Bang Theory
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Classical Conditioning
Respondent Behavior
(automatically)
Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior
(acts on environment)
•Organism associates its behavior with rewards
and consequences
•subjects are more likely to repeat rewarded
(reinforced) behavior
•less likely to repeat
punished behaviors
THORNDIKE => Law of Effect = REWARDED behavior
is likely to recur!
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THORNDIKE
Puzzle Box
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Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s
thinking, especially his law of effect. This law
states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur
again.
Yale University Library
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Operant Chamber
The operant chamber,
or Skinner box, comes
with a bar or key that
an animal manipulates
to obtain a reinforcer
like food or water. The
bar or key is connected
to devices that record
the animal’s response.
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Walter Dawn/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
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From The Essentials of Conditioning and Learning, 3rd
Edition by Michael P. Domjan, 2005. Used with permission
by Thomson Learning, Wadsworth Division
Skinner Box
Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting
point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber,
or the Skinner box, to study operant
conditioning.
1. Operant Response = chosen behavior => cats desire to get out
of the box or to get food
2.Consequences = follows behavior =>receiving food or freedom
after pressing button
Types of Consequences
a. Reinforcers (rewards)
•
INCREASES the likelihood that the
behavior will be repeated
+reinforcement = adds something rewarding to
the situation
-reinforcement = subtracts something unpleasant
from situation
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b. punishments
•weaken behavior by adding something
unpleasant
•reduces the likelihood that behavior
will reoccur
•most effective when it is strong,
immediate and consistent
•can have undesirable side effects
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Punishment
Although there may be some justification for
occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind,
2002), it usually leads to negative effects.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Results in unwanted fears.
Conveys no information to the organism.
Justifies pain to others.
Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its
absence.
5. Causes aggression towards the agent.
6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in
place of another.
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Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure
in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the
desired target behavior through successive
approximations.
Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.
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Primary & Secondary Reinforcers
1. Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing
stimulus like food or drink and SEX …or
heavy petting and 10 sec frencher if you
prefer!
2. Conditioned (secondary)Reinforcer: A
learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing
power through association with the primary
reinforcer.
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Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers
1.
Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs
instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet
for a bar press.
2.
Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in
time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes
at the end of a week.
We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers
(watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a
course) which require consistent study.
Small, immediate
reinforcements wins! => more
alluring than big delayed
reinforcement.
SPEAKS TO THE POWER OF ADDICTION:
SEX, GAMBLING, SMOKING, DRUGS, SHOPPING!
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TERM
DEFINITION
EXAMPLE
Outcome on Learning
Continuous
Reinforcement
Reinforcing behavior
every time it happens
Getting Oz Bucks every
time you answer a question
in class
Learning occurs rapidly;
extinction occurs rapidly
Partial
(intermittent)
Reinforcement
Reinforcing behavior
sometimes
Gambling – playing the
lottery
Initial learning is slower;
greater resistance to
extinction
“hope springs eternal”
Fixed – Ratio
Schedule
Reinforce behavior
after a set number of
responses (attempts)
Piecework;
Often subject will pause
only briefly after
reinforcement, then returns
to high rate of responses /
attempts
Variable –
Ratio Schedule
Provides reinforcement
after an unpredictable
number of responses /
attempts
Gambling, fishing or
hunting; Oz Bucks on
varying responses
Produces high rates of
responding b/c
reinforcement increases as
the responses/ attempts
increase
Reinforce 1st
response / attempt
after a set / fixed time
period
Waiting for your college
acceptance letter in the
mail; waiting for the
cookies to be done
More frequent attempts/
responses as the time for
reinforcement grows near;
start-stop work pattern
Reinforce the 1st
response / attempt
after VARYING TIME
intervals
POP quiz
Produces slow steady
responding; subject
doesn’t know when
reinforcement will49
occur –
therefore paces themselves
Fixed Interval
Schedule
Variable Interval –
Schedule
Schedules of Reinforcement
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Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior for its own
sake.
Extrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior due to
promised rewards or
threats of punishments.
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effect of promising a reward for
doing what one already likes to do. The
person may now see the reward, rather
than intrinsic interest, as motivation for
performing the task.
Are NCAA
athletics like a job/
business?
Does getting paid
(overjustification)
= burnout?
Should athletes get
PAID TO PLAY?
What do you
think?
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Types of Reinforcers
Any event that strengthens the behavior it
follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a
meerkat’s behavior in the cold.
Reuters/ Corbis
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Punishment
An aversive event that decreases the behavior it
follows.
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Extending Skinner’s Understanding
Skinner believed in inner thought processes and
biological underpinnings, but many
psychologists criticize him for discounting
them.
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Psych Sim
Operant Conditioning
Worksheet
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The scenario (scary as it may be):
All of a sudden a creepy looking guy with a mustache driving a
White SUV pulls into the student parking lot. He says, “hey I’m lost.
Can you give me directions to the Oxford Valley Mall?”
With that you take out a piece of paper and write…
Directions to the Oxford Valley Mall – leaving from the
student parking lot at the bottom of the hill….
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Tolman is best known for his
idea of latent learning
Tolman’s
experiment used
rats trying to find
their way through a
maze. Some rats
were rewarded and
others were not
rewarded.
I consider latent learning a
COGNITIVE MAP. When I
need to I can call up the
mental stored image (spatial
memory) and put it to use.
***Learning involves
more than a change in
observable behavior, it
also involves changes
in unobservable
mental processes that
may or may not be
reflected at some
future time (latent
learning).
Learning occurs even
before the subject
reaches the end of the
maze & occurs whether
or not the learner is
reinforced
Those that were
reinforced did indeed
run the maze faster
and with fewer
errors.
BUT…others that
were not
reinforced, had
learned a lot
about the maze as
they wandered,
maybe even more
My learning was LATENT – I
than the rats that
stored it internally for later use.
were rewarded.
You just did not see it in my
behavior. Give me some food and
then I will put my latent learning
to use and get out of the maze
quickly!
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Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Evidence of cognitive processes during operant
learning comes from rats during a maze
exploration in which they navigate the maze
without an obvious reward. Rats seem to
develop cognitive maps, or mental
representations, of the layout of the maze
(environment).
Insight & Latent Learning
Chimpanzee Problem Solving
Chimpanzee Problem Solving
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Latent Learning
Such cognitive maps are based on latent
learning, which becomes apparent when an
incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).
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Operant vs. Classical Conditioning
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Biological Predisposition
Photo: Bob Bailey
Biological constraints
predispose organisms to
learn associations that
are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland
(1961) showed that
animals drift towards
their biologically
predisposed instinctive
behaviors.
Marian Breland Bailey
62
Skinner’s Legacy
Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by
external influences instead of inner thoughts and
feelings. Critics argued that Skinner
dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.
Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc
.
63
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching
machines that shape learning in small steps and
provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
LWA-JDL/ Corbis
In School
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Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic
performance.
In Sports
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Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies
now allow employees to share profits and
participate in company ownership.
At work
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Applications of Operant
Conditioning
In children, reinforcing good behavior increases
the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring
unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.
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© Herb Terrace
Higher animals,
especially humans,
learn through observing
and imitating others.
©Herb Terrace
The monkey on the
right imitates the
monkey on the left in
touching the pictures in
a certain order to obtain
a reward.
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Reprinted with permission from the American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004)
© 2004 AAAS.
Mirror Neurons
Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in
the brains of animals and humans that are active
during observational learning.
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Learning by observation
begins early in life. This
14-month-old child
imitates the adult on TV
in pulling a toy apart.
Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.
Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.
Imitation Onset
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Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University
Bandura's Bobo doll
study (1961) indicated
that individuals
(children) learn
through MODELING
and imitating others
who receive rewards
and punishments.
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Applications of Observational
Learning
Unfortunately,
Bandura’s studies
show that antisocial
models (family,
neighborhood or TV)
may have antisocial
effects.
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Positive Observational Learning
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models
may have prosocial effects.
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Gentile et al., (2004)
shows that children in
elementary school
who are exposed to
violent television,
videos, and video
games express
increased aggression.
Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images
Television and Observational
Learning
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Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Glassman/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Research shows that viewing media violence
leads to an increased expression of aggression.
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“Building Phase” of conditioning
the strengthening or “speeding up” of the learning of a desired response
Diminishing returns
- holds true for both = amount of learning gradually becomes smaller until no further learning occurs
Classical Conditioning
-simple
-Trials
repeated pairing of stimuli (US
w/ CS )
Operant Conditioning
-more complicated
-behavior is voluntary => harder to teach
-Therefore, you must:
motivation
restrict the environment
(skinner box)
Shaping
- reinforcing gradual progressions
toward desired behavior(“Getting
warmer!”)
Size of block = amount of new learning
Spacing of trials = time b/w 1 paring and
the next is equally important as the # of
trials
intermittent pairing = pairing the CS w/ US
on only some trials & presenting them separately
on other trials; reduces both the rate of learning
& final level of learning achieved
-animal
training
-greatest learning occurs in first
few trials
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Things to know:
Definitions of Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Observational Learning
Application to situations
Reinforcement Schedules
Examples, application
Aspects of conditioning – definitions / application
UCS, UCR, CS, CR
Acquisition
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Aversions / phobias
Overjustification
Learning Personalities
Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike, Watson, Garcia and Koelling, Bandura
shaping vs. modeling
reinforcement
primary vs. secondary
continuous vs. partial
positive / negative reinforcement; punishment
effects on learning (speed of acquisition, extinction etc.)
Critics of various learning theories
Cognitive processes
Biological / evolutional predispositions
Latent learning
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