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PSYCHOLOGY
AN EXPLORATION
Second Edition
CHAPTER
learning
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
4
why study learning?
If we had not been able to learn, we would have died
out as a species long ago. Learning is the process that
allows us to adapt to the changing conditions of the
world around us. We can alter our actions until we find
the behavior that leads us to survival and rewards, and
we can eliminate actions that have been unsuccessful
in the past. Without learning, there would be no
buildings, no agriculture, no lifesaving medicines, and
no human civilization.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Learning Objectives
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4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
Learning
Classical conditioning
Conditioned emotional response
Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
Important concepts in operant conditioning
Schedules of reinforcement
How does punishment differ from reinforcement?
Problems associated with the use of punishment
Factors limiting or enhancing operant conditioning
Behavioral Techniques and Behavior Modification
Cognitive learning theory
Observational learning
Real world example of use of conditioning
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
What is Learning?
LO 5.1 Learning
• Learning
– Relatively permanent change in
behavior
 Brain physically changes in response to
learning
– Brought about by experience or practice
– Any kind of change in the way an
organism behaves is learning
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov
– Russian physiologist
– Studied digestion in dogs
 Dogs naturally salivate in response to
food (reflex)
 Pavlov’s dogs salivated in response to
other stimuli as well
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov
– Labeled classical conditioning
 Learning response to a stimulus other
than the original
 New response does not naturally occur in
response to the stimulus, is learned
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Dr. Ivan Pavlov and students working in his laboratory. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was the first to study and
write about the basic principles of classical conditioning.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
– Naturally occurring stimulus
– Leads to an involuntary response
– Unconditioned:
 “Unlearned” or “naturally occurring”
• Unconditioned response (UCR)
– Involuntary response to naturally
occurring stimulus
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
– Stimulus is able to produce learned
reflex response
– Paired with the original unconditioned
stimulus
– Conditioned = “learned”
– Neutral stimulus
 Becomes conditioned stimulus when
paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
• Conditioned response (CR)
– Learned reflex response to a
conditioned stimulus.
– Sometimes called conditioned reflex
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 5.1 Classical Conditioning
Before conditioning takes place, the sound of the metronome does not cause salivation and is a neutral stimulus,
or NS. During conditioning, the sound of the metronome occurs just before the presentation of the food, the UCS.
The food causes salivation, the UCR. When conditioning has occurred after several pairings of the metronome
with the food, the metronome will begin to elicit a salivation response from the dog without any food. This is
learning, and the sound of the metronome is now a CS and the salivation to the bell is the CR.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Classical Conditioning Principles
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
• CS must come before UCS
• CS and UCS must come very close
together in time
– Ideally, only several seconds apart
• Neutral stimulus must be paired
repeatedly with UCS before
conditioning takes place
• CS is usually a stimulus that is
distinctive from other competing stimuli
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Could this be you? The anxiety that many people feel while in the dentist’s office is a conditioned response, with
the dentist’s chair and the smells of the office acting as conditioned stimuli.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
• Stimulus generalization
– Respond to a stimulus similar to original
conditioned stimulus with conditioned
response
• Stimulus discrimination
– Not making a generalized response to
similar stimulus
– Similar stimulus was never paired with
the unconditioned stimulus
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
• Extinction
– Disappearance/weakening of learned
response
 Follows removal or absence of the
unconditioned stimulus (classical
conditioning)
– Removal of reinforcer (operant
conditioning)
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.2 Strength of the Generalized Response
An example of stimulus generalization. The UCS was an electric shock and the UCR was the galvanic skin
response (GSR), a measure associated with anxiety. The subjects had been conditioned originally to a CS tone
(0) of a given frequency. When tested with the original tone, and with tones 1, 2, and 3 of differing frequencies,
a clear generalization effect appeared. The closer the frequency of the test tone to the frequency of tone 0, the
greater was the magnitude of the galvanic skin response to the tone (Hovland, 1937).
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.2 Classical conditioning
• Spontaneous recovery
– Reappearance of learned response after
extinction
– Response usually weak and short-lived
• Higher-order conditioning
– Strong conditioned stimulus is paired
with a neutral stimulus
– Neutral stimulus to become a second
conditioned stimulus
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.3 Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
This graph shows the acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and reacquisition of a conditioned salivary
response. Typically, the measure of conditioning is the number of drops of saliva elicited by the CS on each trial.
Note that on the day following extinction, the first presentation of the CS elicits quite a large response.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.4 Higher-Order Conditioning
In Stage 1, a strong salivation response is conditioned to occur to the sound of the metronome (CS1). In Stage 2,
finger snapping (CS2) is repeatedly paired with the ticking of the metronome (CS1) until the dog begins to
salivate to the finger snapping alone. This is called “higher-order conditioning,” because one CS is used to create
another, “higher” CS.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Conditioned Emotional Response
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
• Emotional response classically
conditioned to occur to learned stimuli
• Examples:
– Fear of dogs
– Emotional reaction to seeing an
attractive person, baby animals, etc.
– May lead to phobias – irrational fear
responses
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Conditioned Emotional Response
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
• Vicarious conditioning
– Classical conditioning acquired by
watching the reaction of another person
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.5 Conditioning of “Little Albert”
After “Little Albert” had been conditioned to fear a white rat, he also demonstrated fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a
sealskin coat (although it remains uncertain if stimulus generalization actually occurred as this fear was to a
single rabbit, a single dog, etc.). Can you think of any emotional reactions you experience that might be
classically conditioned emotional responses?
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Taste Aversion
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
• Conditioned taste aversion
– Nausea or aversive response to a
particular taste
– Exposure to taste was followed by a
aversive reaction
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Taste Aversion
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
• Conditioned taste aversion
– Occurs after only one association
 Biological preparedness
– Animals learn associations with only one
or few pairings
– Survival value as animal could die with
multiple tastings
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Conditioned taste aversions in nature. This moth is not poisonous to birds, but the monarch butterfly whose
coloring the moth imitates is quite poisonous. Birds find their food by vision and will not eat anything that
resembles the monarch.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Why Classical Conditioning Works
LO 5.3 Conditioned emotional response
• Stimulus substitution
– Pavlov’s explanation
– Conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes
substitute for unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) due to close pairing of two
• Cognitive perspective
– Conditioning occurs because CS
provides information or expectancy
about UCS forthcoming
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Operant Conditioning
LO 5.4 Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
• Involves voluntary behavior
• Learned through the effects of pleasant
and unpleasant consequences to
responses
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Operant Conditioning
LO 5.4 Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect
– If a response is followed by a
pleasurable consequence, it will be
repeated
– If followed by an unpleasant
consequence, it will tend not to be
repeated
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Skinner’s Contribution
LO 5.4 Operant conditioning: Thorndike and Skinner
• Stressed the study of only observable,
measurable behavior.
• Operant conditioning
– Voluntary behavior used to operate on
the environment
– Focus on the effects of the
consequences of behavior
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.7 A Typical Skinner Box
This rat is learning to press the bar in the wall of the cage in order to get food (delivered a few pellets at a time
in the food trough on lower left). In some cases, the light on the top left might be turned on to indicate that
pressing the bar will lead to food or to warn of an impending shock delivered by the grate on the floor of the
cage.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Reinforcement
LO 5.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning
• Reinforcement
– Event or stimulus following a response
that increases the probability the
response will occur again
– Primary reinforcer
 Reinforcer that meets a basic biological
need
– hunger, thirst, touch
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Reinforcement
LO 5.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning
• Reinforcement
– Secondary reinforcer
 Reinforcer associated with a primary
reinforcer
– praise, tokens, gold stars
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Positive and Negative Reinforcement
LO 5.5 Important concepts in operant conditioning
• Positive reinforcement
– Pleasurable consequence follows
response
• Negative reinforcement
– Removal of unpleasant stimulus
increases response
– Escape from, or avoidance of an
unpleasant stimulus.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Table 4.1
Comparing Two Kinds of Conditioning
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 5.6 Schedules of reinforcement
• Partial reinforcement effect
– Response is reinforced after some, but
not all, correct responses
 Response tends to be resistant to
extinction
• Continuous reinforcement
– Reinforcement of each and every correct
response
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 5.6 Schedules of reinforcement
• Fixed ratio schedule
– Number of responses required for
reinforcement is always the same
• Variable interval schedule
– Interval of time must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible
– Amount of time different for each trial
or event.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
When people go fishing, they never know how long they may have to dangle the bait in the water before
snagging a fish. This is an example of a variable interval schedule of reinforcement and explains why some
people, such as this father and son, are reluctant to pack up and go home.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 5.6 Schedules of reinforcement
• Fixed interval schedule
– Interval of time that must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible
– Amount of time passing is always the
same
• Variable ratio schedule
– Number of responses required for
reinforcement is different for each trial
or event.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Slot machines provide reinforcement in the form of money on a variable ratio schedule, making the use of these
machines very addictive for many people. People don’t want to stop for fear the next pull of the lever will be that
“magic” one that produces a jackpot.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 4.8 Schedules of Reinforcement
These four graphs show the typical pattern of responding for both fixed and variable interval and ratio schedules
of reinforcement. The responses are cumulative, which means new responses are added to those that come
before, and all graphs begin after the learned pattern is well established. Slash marks mean that a reinforcement
has been given. In both the fixed interval and fixed ratio graphs, there is a pause after each reinforcement as the
learner briefly “rests.” The “scalloped” shape of the fixed interval curve is a typical indicator of this pause, as is
the stair-step shape of the fixed ratio curve. In the variable interval and ratio schedules, no such pause occurs,
because the reinforcements are unpredictable. Notice that both fixed and variable interval schedules are slower
(less steep) than the two ratio schedules because of the need to respond as quickly as possible in the ratio
schedules.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Punishment
LO 5.7 How does punishment differ from reinforcement
• Follows a response, making it less likely
the response will happen again
• Is the opposite of reinforcement
– Punishment weakens responses,
reinforcement strengthens responses
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Punishment
LO 5.7 How does punishment differ from reinforcement
• Is the opposite of reinforcement
– Punishment by application
 The addition or experience of an
unpleasant stimulus following a response
– Punishment by removal
 Removal of a pleasurable stimulus
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This young man’s father is applying punishment by removal as he takes the car keys away from his son.
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Table 4.3 Negative Reinforcement Versus Punishment
by Removal
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Problems with Punishment
LO 5.8 What are some problems with punishment
• May cause punished to avoid the
punisher instead of the behavior being
punished
– Wrong response is learned
• Can encourage lying to avoid
punishment
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Problems with Punishment
LO 5.8 What are some problems with punishment
• May create fear and anxiety
– Emotions not conducive to learning
• Hitting provides model for aggression
– Behavior is being modeled by the
punisher
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How to Make Punishment More Effective
LO 5.8 What are some problems with punishment
1. Punishment should immediately follow
the behavior it is meant to punish.
2. Punishment should be consistent.
3. Punishment of the wrong behavior
should be paired, whenever possible,
with reinforcement of the right
behavior.
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Stimulus Control
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
• Discriminative stimulus
– Provides organism a cue for making a
certain response in order to obtain
reinforcement
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Operant Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
• Shaping
– Small steps toward goal behavior are
reinforced until goal behavior is met
• Successive approximations
– The steps in behavior leading to a
particular goal behavior
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This dog has been trained to help its physically challenged owner. Operant conditioning principles can be used to
train animals to do many useful tasks, including opening the refrigerator.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Operant Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
• Extinction
– Removal of reinforcement
– Response drops out
• Generalization
– Response occurs with stimuli only
similar to the original stimulus
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to ignore it. The lack of reinforcement for the tantrum behavior
will eventually result in extinction.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Operant Conditioning Concepts
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
• Spontaneous recovery
– Reoccurrence of a once extinguished
response
– Same as with classical conditioning
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Behavior Resistant to Conditioning
LO 5.9 How operant stimuli control behavior
• Instinctive drift
– Tendency for an animal’s behavior to
revert to genetically controlled patterns
after learning
– Animals have genetically determined
instinctive patterns of behavior
– These instincts differ from species to
species.
– Some responses cannot be trained into
an animal regardless of conditioning.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Raccoons commonly dunk their food in and out of water before eating. This “washing” behavior is controlled by
instinct and is difficult to change even using operant techniques.
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Applying Operant Conditioning
LO 5.10 Behavior modification
• Behavior modification
– Use of conditioning techniques to create
changes in behavior
• Token economy
– Desired behavior is rewarded with
tokens that can be exchanged for
desired items or privileges
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Applying Operant Conditioning
LO 5.10 Behavior modification
• Time-out
– Organism is being “removed” from
opportunity to obtain positive
reinforcement
• Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
– Uses shaping-skills broken into small
steps
– Prompts are removed over time
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Biofeedback and Neurofeedback
LO 5.10 Behavior modification
• Biofeedback
– Use of feedback about biological
conditions to bring involuntary
responses under voluntary control
 I.E.: blood pressure, heart rate
• Neurofeedback
– Form of biofeedback
– Uses brain-scanning devices to provide
feedback about brain activity
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Cognitive Learning Theory
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
• 1950s and 1960’s interest in cognition
– Mental events that take place inside a
person’s mind while behaving
• View began to dominate experimental
psychology
• Key theorists:
– Tolman, Kohler and Seligman
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Latent Learning
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
• Edward Tolman (1930)
• Taught three groups of rats the same
maze
– Group 1
 Rewarded each time at end of maze
 Learned maze quickly
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Latent Learning
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
• Taught three groups of rats the same
maze
– Group 2
 In maze every day; only rewarded on
10th day
 Demonstrated learning almost
immediately after receiving reward
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Latent Learning
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
• Taught three groups of rats the same
maze
– Group 3
 Never rewarded
 Did not learn maze well
• Latent learning
– Learning remains hidden until
application is useful
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Figure 4.9 A Typical Maze
This is an example of a maze such as the one used in Tolman’s experiments in latent learning. A rat is placed in
the start box. The trial is over when the rat gets to the end box.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Figure 4.10 Learning Curves for Three Groups of Rats
In the results of the classic study of latent learning, Group 1 was rewarded on each day, while Group 2 was
rewarded for the first time on Day 11. Group 3 was never rewarded. Note the immediate change in the behavior
of Group 2 on Day 12 (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).
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Insight
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
• Kohler (1925)
• Sudden perception of relationships
among various parts of a problem
– Allows solution to problem to come
quickly
 Cannot be gained through trial-and-error
learning alone
 “Aha” moment
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Another of Köhler’s chimpanzees, Grande, has just solved the problem of how to get to the banana by stacking
boxes. Does this meet the criteria for insight, or was it simple trial-and-error learning?
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Learned Helplessness
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
• Martin Seligman (1975)
– Studied escape and avoidance learning
– Noted dogs who had been unable to
avoid shock did not avoid shock when
opportunity became available
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Learned Helplessness
LO 5.11 Cognitive learning theory
• Martin Seligman (1975)
– Described learned helplessness as the
tendency to fail to act to escape from a
situation
 History of repeated failures in the past
creates belief that nothing can be done
– Depression may result from learned
helplessness
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Figure 4.11 Seligman’s Apparatus
In Seligman’s studies of learned helplessness, dogs were placed in a two-sided box. Dogs that had no prior
experience with being unable to escape a shock would quickly jump over the hurdle in the center of the box to
land on the “safe” side. Dogs that had previously learned that escape was impossible would stay on the side of
the box in which the shock occurred, not even trying to go over the hurdle.
Psychology: An Exploration, Second Edition
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Observational Learning
LO 5.12 Observational learning
• Learning new behavior by watching a
model perform the behavior
• Bandura (1961)
– Children observed and later
spontaneously imitated observed
aggressive behavior
• Learning/performance distinction
– Learning can take place without actual
performance of the learned behavior
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Figure 4.12 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
In Albert Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment, the doll was used to demonstrate the impact of observing an
adult model performing aggressive behavior on the later aggressive behavior of children. The children in these
photos are imitating the adult model’s behavior even though they believe they are alone and are not being
watched.
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Four Elements of Observational Learning
LO 5.12 Observational learning
• ATTENTION
– To learn through observation learner
must first attend to the model
• MEMORY
– Learner must be able to retain memory
of what was done
– Example: remembering steps in
preparing a dish seen on a cooking
show
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Four Elements of Observational Learning
LO 5.12 Observational learning
• IMITATION
– Learner must be capable of reproducing
actions of the model
• MOTIVATION
– Learner must have the desire to
perform the action
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Applying Psychology to Everyday Life
LO 5.13 Real world example use of conditioning
• Toilet Training a Cat
– Use operant principles
– Shaping
 Transition from litter box to toilet is done
in stages
– Prepare “the training arena”
 Optimizing bathroom success
– Positive reinforcement on a variable
schedule
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Misha’s first attempt without the box. He scored two out of a possible four.
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Misha demonstrates proper squatting posture. Note the look of firm concentration.
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