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Infiltrating the Frozen Fortress: the importance of the cryosphere to mountains
and their populations in the wake of global climate change
A Literature Review by Katherine E. Williams
GEOG4000 Dr. J. Michael Daniels
University of Denver, Department of Geography
November 11, 2009
Abstract
Mountain geography is an important field to the safeguarding of natural resources, plant and
animal communities, and environmental regulators. The mountains are natural centers as well
as political, historical, and cultural icons to populations around the world. Mountain
ecosystems have reached global priority status due to recognized vulnerability to present and
impending climate change. The cryosphere is the frozen part of the earth and includes areas
located on and around mountain peaks. These frozen places are essential reservoirs of
freshwater and provide stabilization for mountain slopes. Cryogenic systems are acutely
susceptible to predicted climate change. The demise of cryogenic features has far-reaching
implications for mountain systems and their downstream dependents. Hydrologic processes
link the cryosphere to many economic, political, and societal traditions. Water is indispensible
to global populations and must be monitored and preserved. Geographic Information Science
(GISci) is a discipline that rose to prominence concurrent with climate change concerns. The
field was suitably equipped to respond to the international calls for an influx of critical data to
guide officials in implementing effective mitigation plans. The integration of GISci techniques
into mountain research enhanced display and storage functions, but also provided a platform to
model environmental data in a spatial context alongside socio-economic attributes. Detailed
and accurate studies of mountain systems are vital to the well-being of unique cultures,
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economic stability, indigenous species, and resource management. The geographic study of
mountains has progressed significantly, but still requires advance in comprehensive knowledge
and public involvement to evoke substantial change.
Section I. Introduction
In the early days of Geography, Alexander von Humboldt had a vision to explore the natural
world holistically. To him this meant studying the interrelatedness of the pieces as well as the
attributes of the individual parts. When Humboldt journeyed to the New World to explore the
land and gather scientific data, he discovered a wealth of information. His travels introduced
him to novel ecosystems, species, and cultures. Yet his tactic was not merely to record
separate components. Rather he sought to synthesize the parts into a whole, to provide
meaning rather than mere representation. He approached the earth as an intricate organism
and viewed the interactions of the individual elements as complex and inseparable, though
often independent. The careful cataloguing of his journey became a rich repository of
information for fellow and future scientists. Humboldt’s dream was to “depict in a single work
the entire material universe” and to show the immense diversity and complexity of natural
systems (Livingstone 1992). This model of scientific inquiry is lofty, but worth pursuing. The
issues facing scientists today are different than the subjects which occupied scientists in past
centuries. The advent of digital technology, spacecraft, rapid population increase, and an ever
tightening web of economic dependency provide a different context for research initiatives. In
light of this, the importance of holistic research endeavors remains fundamentally important.
Geography has a long tradition of mingling the physical world, human issues, and spatial
references in research efforts (Livingstone 1992). Studying the mountains from a
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multidisciplinary perspective is essential in order to achieve a full-picture understanding of how
to protect and preserve these valuable ecosystems (Heywood, Price, and Petch 1994).
Mountains are valued for their natural beauty, but they are not spectators in physical cycles.
They are intimately involved in maintaining the ecological health of the earth. This paper will
explore a few of the key mountain features that fortify natural processes.
The research for this paper began with the intention of exploring mountain geography.
As research progressed it soon became clear that mountains were in the global spotlight for
one primary reason. This reason is their susceptibility to climate change. The vast majority of
published mountain research is integrated with a climate change perspective. Thus this paper
evolved to incorporate climate change as it relates to mountain ecosystems. Further study
illuminated the cryosphere as a region of great importance to mountains and an area of high
vulnerability to climate change. As a result, this review will examine features of the cryosphere
and why this region is important to mountains and other systems. Much of the current
research also utilizes geographic information technologies to augment ground data points.
Implementation of these techniques has greatly improved the clarity and predictive power of
mountain-climatic research. Adhering to the above progression, this literature review will
explore mountain geography in the context of global climate change looking specifically at the
significance of the cryosphere for mountain health and at the role of Geographic Information
Science in aiding research efforts in mountain geography.
Section II. Mountain Ecosystems: Harbingers of global health and diversity
Like geography itself, mountain geography intersects many other disciplines,
synthesizing them around the philosophy of human relations and spatial distributions
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(Heywood, Price, and Petch 1994). Mountains are physical forms, yet they embody an intricate
combination of meaning and utility. Mountains are cultural and spiritual icons, locations of
tourism and recreation, and symbols of strength and solidarity (Debarbiuex 1999; Friend 2003;
Funnell and Price 2003). A complete study of mountains encompasses physical and human
geography. As a sub-field of Biogeography, Mountain Geography is positioned to study the
complex human-mountain relationships which have gained priority status in the twenty-first
century. Due to changing global policies, geographical studies of mountain ecosystems are in
great demand. Mountain systems are complex and highly diversified. They are centers of
biodiversity, storehouses of natural resources, and treasuries of history, culture, and agriculture
(Friend 2003). Research is needed to assess species distribution, disturbance patterns,
communities, and landscapes within the context of their spatial location (Young et al. 2003).
Defining a mountain is preliminary to this discussion. Though most people could point
out a mountain, the question must be asked, “In a purely empirical sense, what is a mountain?”
Is it defined by location, height, relief, latitude, or human opinion (Friend 2003)? According to
mountain research authors, a rigorous definition of a mountain is lacking. However, the
concept of a mountain is as universal as it is locally defined (Ives, Messerli, and Spiess 1997;
Debarbiuex 1999). The idea of a mountain is a function of culture and epistemology in addition
to physical attributes such as relief and elevation. Recognizing this perspective is important in
the global effort to preserve mountain ecosystems as significant climate change develops
(Debarbiuex 1999). The emphasis is placed on the relationship between mountains and people,
yielding a sense of personal involvement. Personalization of mountain research makes
Geography a fitting platform from which to address issues of change and mitigation (Heywood,
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Price, and Petch 1994). Close ties with the mountains can be seen when considering natural
resources. Mountains supply an estimated fifty percent of the freshwater used by humans
worldwide. Of this, ten percent of the population are considered mountain residents while the
other forty percent are in regions downstream from mountain run-off (Jansky 2002). Water
supplies also provide irrigation and energy and feed major river systems. Other mountain
resources include timber, stone materials, minerals, and wild game. Mountains are used for
livestock grazing and agriculture (Friend 2003). They are also inhabited by an immense variety
of species, many with specialized niches (Williams, Jackson, and Kutzbach 2007). Often
mountain environments have acted as species islands that retain unique genetic qualities
isolated from other species members (Lomolino and Davis 1997; Veblen 2000). This is
particularly true in the tropics and sub-tropics which are regions of dense species richness
(Svenning et al. 2008).
Mountains are also home to people. Some regions are inhabited with indigenous
populations that have unique cultures and agricultural specialties (Zimmerer 1991). Other
regions are occupied by a populace seeking respite and an aesthetic environment to live in
(Riebsame, Gosnell, and Theobald 1996). Whatever the reason for human inhabitance, people
in the mountains necessitate a higher level of management policy. Human dwellings encumber
fire regimes, wildlife habitats, and vegetative growth (Riebsame, Gosnell, and Theobald 1996;
Ives, Messerli, and Spiess 1997; Veblen 2000). These issues may be surmountable, but require
careful research and monitoring.
Though mountains are symbols of strength, they are exposed and vulnerable to dynamic
change. Mass movements such as avalanches, landslides, and floods produce severe impact on
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habitats within the path of movement. Areas downstream of mass movement events can also
experience significant damage or degradation (Funnell and Price 2003). The abrupt relief
characteristic of mountain systems creates a gradient of extremes from top to bottom of the
landform. Temperature, precipitation, and wind speed combine to make the peaks of
mountains harsh environments habitable by a limited number of species. In alpine systems this
is demonstrated by the expanses of low-growing tundra, gnarled krummholz stands, and low
species variety and density. In contrast, the valley regions of mountains are characterized by
verdant vegetation and active, diverse animal communities (Ives, Messerli, and Spiess 1997).
Change in these systems has been observed for many years (Vale 1987; Price 1999). The
change has been broadly assigned to global warming, anthropogenic degradation, and natural
cycles. However, the need for detailed datasets, intricate models, and sound policy decisions is
vital to maintaining the health of the mountains (Jansky 2002). Recognizing this importance
was a big step forward in global collaboration and interdisciplinary research.
Section III. Global Climate Change: Where are we headed and what will do when we get there?
The delicate ecological balance of mountain ecosystems was globally recognized during
the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Funnell and Price 2003). At this meeting,
leaders from nations around the world met to determine a plan of action for dealing with global
climate change. The Rio Earth Summit produced Agenda 21, a document that was the
culmination of over a decade of research. Agenda 21 provided a framework for global
sustainability and addressed social, economic, and environmental issues. The Rio Earth Summit
was a milestone event giving momentum to global partnerships, environmental awareness, and
humanitarian aid (Keating 1994). However, great intentions do not necessarily lead to
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immediate results. Agenda 21 was primarily a research initiative. The sense was that the earth
and its inhabitants were in dire need of change, but conclusive data to remedy this premonition
was lacking. The result of the Rio Summit has been a massive research effort to fill in data gaps,
giving credence to intuition (Keating 1994; Funnell and Price 2003).
This landmark document included “Sustainable Mountain Development” as Chapter 13
of Agenda 21. In this chapter, mountains were recognized as a crucial link to environmental
stability and health (Keating 1994). As a result, research studies were launched to obtain
detailed, extensive information and datasets and to develop policy and management plans
(Messerli 1999; Price 1999; Jansky 2002). This effort has continued and expanded over the last
seventeen years and has produced an impressive set of data. Technological advancements
have enhanced efforts to monitor and forecast climate change and subsequent environmental
change.
Global Circulation Models (GCMs) are sophisticated, computer driven models that can
handle large, detailed datasets. They are validated by their ability to predict past climate
change. These models are not perfect and no single model is able to achieve absolute
coherence (Anisimov et al. 2007; Le Treut et al. 2007; Williams, Jackson, and Kutzbach 2007).
This means that the forecasted events are still guesses no matter how much supporting data is
included in the model. However, certain trends appear to be “virtually certain” in the models
while others can be named “extremely likely” or “exceptionally unlikely” according to the
Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) (Le Treut et al. 2007). The IPCC is an
organization devoted to studying climate change. The Panel is composed of working groups
and task forces that are assigned to climate change topics. These groups contribute to IPCC
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Assessment Reports that are a wealth of information for scientists, policymakers, government
leaders, and the general public. The IPCC released their Fourth Assessment in 2007 for which
the organization received the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize. The Fifth Assessment is currently in
revision (Solomon and Manning 2008).
Climate change is a global priority and though uncertainty is involved, some changes are
evident. These include an increase in earth surface temperature, drying patterns, and change
in global circulation. Other predicted changes are alteration in the annual amount, seasonal
pattern, and type of precipitation, lower lows and higher highs for air temperature, and
increased intensity of extreme events such as extratropical storms. Some of these changes are
region dependent; others are more generalized across the globe such as air temperature and
changes in circulation (Price and Barry 1997; Trenberth et al. 2007). With global temperatures
on the rise, the vulnerability of one particular ecosystem stands out. This system is the
cryosphere, the essence of which requires the cold temperatures that are becoming more
obscure.
Section IV. The Cryosphere: Ice-ice baby
The cryosphere is the frozen part of the earth and includes ice, snow, and frozen
ground. The cryogenic systems of mountains are unique in that they are predominately lifeless
features. A few specialized organisms live in the ice such as bryophytes and cold-adapted
algae, but generally the species diversity is very low (Mordaunt 1999). However these masses
of ice and snow are vital to regulating life-processes in and around the mountains. Without the
frozen mountain tips, mountains ecosystems would be dramatically different (Hinkel, Ellis, and
Mosley-Thompson 2003). Due to the importance of geocryology to mountain systems and
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climatic change, these next sections will first define cryogenic features, then address the role of
the cryosphere in the hydrology of mountains, and finally examine the susceptibility of the
cryosphere to climate changes.
The cryosphere is predominately located in the polar regions of the globe, but is also
situated on high mountain peaks throughout the rest of the earth (Washburn 1979). Several
snow caps are located in tropical and sub-tropical regions due to the sheer altitude of
mountains and are very important to the water cycles in the those regions (Hinkel, Ellis, and
Mosley-Thompson 2003). The major players in the cryosphere are glaciers and the
surrounding periglacial region. Glaciers are permanent ice and snowfields that are capable of
dynamic movements which sculpt land features. Glaciers are freshwater reservoirs. They
contribute to the mass balance of the frozen system and serve as frozen archives for
researchers. Gaseous and particulate matter embedded in the ice can be used to reconstruct
past climate conditions and fill in gaps of other climatic data. These records show that the
earth can experience rapid climate change events as well as gradual processes that lead to
change. Glaciers are located on every continent, are responsible for many landforms, and
regulate the moderate temperatures of mid-latitude regions (Washburn 1979; Hinkel, Ellis, and
Mosley-Thompson 2003).
Periglacial regions are typically adjacent to glaciers, though some authors include in this
term all non-glacial features characterized by severe freeze-thaw cycles regardless of the
region’s proximity to a glacier. These regions are often difficult to quantify due to variable
depth and extent (Washburn 1979; Williams and Smith 1989). Periglacial zones are dominated
by permafrost. The permafrost layer is a function of surface temperature, sun exposure,
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latitude, seasonality, and local geologic structure. Simply defined, it is a region of perennially
frozen ground. The near-surface part of the permafrost layer experiences freeze thaw cycles,
while greater depths remain frozen year-round (Williams and Smith 1989; Yershov 1998).
More recent studies have characterized a transition layer which is located between the active
layer and the perennially frozen layer. The transition layer acts as a buffer between the other
two layers and can experience multiple years of constant freeze as well as seasons of complete
thaw. This layer tends to be rich in ice thus increasing the latent heat needed to penetrate into
the perennially frozen layer and cause thaw (Shur, Hinkel, and Nelson 2005). Permafrost also
regulates lentic, or still-water, pools. The recent disappearance of many of these pools in
Siberia is thought to be directly connected to changes in the thickness of the active permafrost
layer (Anisimov et al. 2007). The periglacial zone is determined by mean temperature, latitude,
altitude, and local climate (Washburn 1979).
The intense freeze-thaw cycles of periglacial zones result in distinct processes that
modify the earth’s surface. Cracking and heaving of the ground is accomplished when
embedded ice acts as a wedge in the ground that splits and shifts during freeze expansion and
thaw contraction (Washburn 1979; Williams and Smith 1989). The pattern and severity of
upheaval are determined by the thermal flow of the ground and the material composition and
distribution. Often ice wedging produces patterned ground by heaving ground material to the
surface (Yershov 1998). The periglacial zone also experiences mass wasting events such as
avalanches and slushflow. These events lead to landforms like rock glaciers and talus areas.
Mass-wasting events produce smooth slopes and lead to nivation, or local erosion. These and
many other periglacial processes determine the form of the cryosphere as well as the
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distribution of plant and animal communities. Frozen ground is more stable than thawed or
thawing ground (Washburn 1979).
The cryosphere is undoubtedly vulnerable to climate change (Fitzharris 1996; Washburn
1979; Hinkel, Ellis, and Mosley-Thompson 2003; Anisimov et al. 2007). Each cryogenic feature
has a different lifetime on the earth as shown in Figure 1 and will respond to climatic changes
differently (Lemke et al. 2007). Polar, sea, and continental glacial extent and seasonal snow
Figure 1. Cryogenic features and the relative life-time of each feature at current climate conditions
(Lemke et al. 2007).
cover are heavily regulated by the environment. Climate, topography, and surface composition
control where and to what extent glaciers and periglacial zones will form. Climatic controls
include temperature, type and amount of precipitation, wind, and seasonality. Time and
anthropogenic contributions produce additional determining factors for frozen systems
(Washburn 1979). Degradation of cryogenic features will greatly affect slope stability and
water resources. Glacial melt and movements pose hazards to humans and to the global
environment. A rigorous method to monitor glacial and periglacial change is imperative. The
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advent of geographic information science (GISci) has greatly contributed to observations of
mountains and the cryosphere on a global scale (Raup et al. 2007a).
Section V. Geographic Information Systems: Cataloguing global change
Before exploring the integration of mountain geography and GISci, a brief definition and
overview of the geographic information field is in order. GISci will be used in this paper to
denote the science underlying the techniques and applications of Geographic Information
Systems (GISys). GISys experienced rapid growth in the early stages of development due to its
immense capacity for data synthesis. GISys techniques found a ready audience in disciplines
across the academic, industrial, and governmental spectrum (Goodchild 1992; Goodchild 2004).
But the emergence of this sophisticated technique was not without growing pains. The ideas
for GISys applications are limitless, but the supporting technology necessarily constrains the
output. Many technical issues such as interoperability and processing have experienced radical
improvement over the past few decades. The power of GISys has been amplified by
standardizing data formats, developing spatial algorithms for parallel processing, and improving
GPS technology to more accurately assess ground truth points. Representational issues have
been reconciled by reducing incompatibility between raster and vector formats, developing the
object model, adding a temporal element, and improving methods to visually display spatial
data (Brown et al. 2003).
The platform of GISys almost seems like a direct answer to the call for information
issued at the Rio Earth Summit. It is an ideal system for storing, modeling, and monitoring the
earth. This is because GISys was designed with geospatial reference components, can
incorporate large datasets, and can link spatial data to attribute data on nearly any subject
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desirable. Through a GISys, physical space and features, populations and distributions, and
temporal change can be synthesized (Heywood, Price, and Petch 1994; Brown et al. 2003;
Goodchild 2004). This system has the power to model, compute, compare, and track data
through time, all while maintaining a spatially referenced dataset. The versatility of GISys
makes it indispensible to the international effort to study, understand, and hopefully alleviate
anthropogenic strain on the planet (Heywood, Price, and Petch 1994).
Advances in GISci have also aided the understanding of how information systems work
and how people think about them. Improvements in the link between scientific information
and dissemination to the public are crucial for the environmental awareness effort (Heywood,
Price, and Petch 1994). Part of the challenge facing management teams and policymakers is
presenting information to the public in a way that they grasp the reality and severity of the
situation. Mountain systems are linked socio-economic stability and environmental
preservation. This must be communicated meaningfully to the public. GIS continues to gain
attention in public arenas and in education (Brown et al. 2003). The amount of information
available in GISys format continually increases and has made navigation much easier through
web-based applications and information access (Sui 2004; Klinkenberg 2007). For a world in the
information age, GISys is an ideal way to accumulate and communicate globally relevant issues
(Sui 2004). However, it is important to retain ethical integrity and data quality. GISys are
powerful, but they can also be manipulated to display erroneous prognoses and relationships if
used improperly (Heywood, Price, and Petch 1994; Klinkenberg 2007). Technological power
comes with a price. As David Sui aptly comments, “as the islands of our knowledge expands,
the shores of our ignorance also stretches.” New advances produce more questions even as
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they answer others (Sui 2004). The potential of GISci is alluring, but its application must be
handled with care (Klinkenberg 2007). Many scientists understand this well and are responsible
for meticulous storehouses of information that contribute to the overall goal of environmental
protection.
In the past thirty years, major efforts were undertaken to catalog mountain features
and processes. This includes studies of glacial and periglacial extent, thickness, and seasonal
change. Advances in technology have enhanced the clarity of glacier and ice sheet
measurements. For instance, the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space (GLIMS) is an
international consortium that provides high resolution satellite images. The GLIMS dataset has
been complied into a publically accessible and interactive web-based database. The dataset
can be used to show the change in glacial mass over time as well as the increase in global glacial
data (Raup et al. 2007b). The GLIMS dataset is an important storehouse of cryogenic
information, but research efforts are moving beyond cataloging data. More rigorous modeling
efforts are needed to forecast future events. GISys models will be discussed in Section VII.
Section VI. Tied Together: The hydrology uniting mountains, cryosphere, and climate change.
With atmospheric temperature increase practically certain, changes are inevitable to
hydrologic processes, particularly those with frozen components (Barnett, Adam, and
Lettenmaier 2005). The hydrologic cycle is a complex system that varies by climate, region, and
surface characteristics. This paper will not attempt to define or explore all hydrologic cycles.
Instead, it will focus on snow-melt dominated systems because these describe most mountain
hydrologies and are vulnerable to cryogenic degradation. This section will examine the
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observed impact of climate change to these systems and the resulting effects on downstream
locations.
Hydrologic systems with a prevailing snow-melt component are typically characterized
by a peak in run-off during the spring season when over-winter snow and ice melt. Snowdominated hydrologies are most often located above forty-five degrees latitude. However,
some regions of high elevation below forty-five degrees latitude exhibit snow dependent
hydrologies. Other areas above forty-five degrees latitude do not experience a snow-melt
driven hydrologic system due to proximity of warm coastal waters or temperatures that are too
cold to allow snowfall and melt. Snow-dominated systems are estimated to directly affect onesixth of the world’s population (Barnett, Adam, and Lettenmaier 2005). Seasonal snow is
important to these systems because it replenishes the water supply and acts as a climate
control by regulating atmospheric radiation through albedo (Liston 1999). Snow cover and
subsequent melt control plant distribution and growth, determine the treeline, and affect
permafrost dynamics (Liston 1999; Shur, Hinkel, and Nelson 2005). Furthermore, local and
regional hydrology is of concern to human populations and industries. Mountain water
supplies are essential for fresh drinking water, food security, and power supply (Kreutzmann
1999). A decrease in high mountain water stores has far-reaching consequences.
Observed and predicted climatic change trends overwhelmingly support evidence of
patterns that will impact the global water budget and regional hydrologic cycles (Liston 1999;
Frei et al. 2002; Liu et al. 2003; Barnett, Adam, and Lettenmaier 2005; Bates et al. 2008). The
driving factors behind alteration of snow-dominated hydrologies are 1) change in precipitation
regimes and 2) an increase in surface temperature (Liu et al. 2003; Barnett, Adam, and
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Lettenmaier 2005; Bates et al. 2008). These two factors are expected to affect seasonal runoff
patterns, snowfall, and permafrost activity. The timing and duration of peak run-off events are
likely to shift according to most GCMs (Frei et al. 2002; Anisimov et al. 2007).
A change in intensity, duration, or incidence of runoff events will affect downstream
habitats and inhabitants. Altering these processes may lead to deglaciation and permafrost
degradation, water shortages, increased hazards such as flood, drought, and slope failure,
strain on food security, and decrease in economic stability (Anisimov et al. 2007). Mountain
change also poses a threat to plant and animal species and the ecosystems they live in.
Adaptation will be necessary and less-specialized organisms are favored for survival (Williams,
Jackson, and Kutzbach 2007). In addition, stress on agricultural space, livestock grazing, timber
harvesting, mineral extraction, and other resources will pose local and regional economic strain
and social difficulty. Humans, like other plant and animal species, will be pushed to adapt
(Anisimov et al. 2007). Lifestyle adjustments increase the risk of losing valuable cultural
traditions and structures, local socio-economic patterns, unique species and sub-species, and
ties to the land (Zimmerer 1991).
The implications of changing the water cycle are serious. In a 2008 IPCC Special Report
on water, researchers warn, “Freshwater reservoirs are vulnerable and have potential to be
strongly impacted by climate change, with wide-ranging consequences for human societies and
ecosystems” (Bates et al. 2008). Water supply and quality are vital components of everyday life
for living organisms. This resource must be guarded and maintained. Water is a top global
priority, and thus makes mountains a priority (Barnett, Adam, and Lettenmaier 2005). Their
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crucial role in the hydrologic process has earned mountains the title “water towers of the
world” (Kreutzmann 1999; Messerli 1999).
Mountain water supplies are closely linked to the cryosphere in snow-dominated
hydrologic systems. Snow, ice, rain, and groundwater supply streams with water throughout
the year. The frozen components allow water supplies to continue even during dry, hot
seasons. Snow and ice accumulate in the highlands over the winter with minimal melt
occurring during the cold months. Lower elevations experience multiple freeze-thaw cycles
throughout the winter. Higher elevations tend to stay frozen for the duration of the winter
season, serving as reservoirs of freshwater. This water store creates a steady supply of water
during the season when most plant growth and animal reproduction occurs (Liu et al. 2003;
Barnett, Adam, and Lettenmaier 2005).
Natural systems in the mid-latitudes are highly attuned to the balance of annual warmcold and wet-dry cycles. Spring begins the ablation season with a rapid release of water when
conditions are right (Liu et al. 2003). Maintenance of this cycle is dependent on cryogenic
controls. As discussed in Section IV, permafrost layers drive hydrology in alpine systems. The
active permafrost layer stores and releases water through seasonal freeze-thaw cycles. The
transition layer acts as a buffer between the active and perennially frozen layer. This layer
experiences the most variability, remaining frozen for several years and completely thawing in
others. The concern with increasing temperatures and decreasing snowfall is that the balance
between these layers will be disturbed and result in destruction or severe degradation of the
cryogenic ecosystem (Shur, Hinkel, and Nelson 2005).
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Changes in the cryosphere have already been observed in glacial retreat, melting of ice
caps and sheets, change in the thickness of the active permafrost layer (Figure 2),
disappearance of lentic systems, and increased river flow (Shur, Hinkel, and Nelson 2005;
Anisimov et al. 2007; Lemke et al. 2007). Some of these changes to ice forms have been
induced by an increased air and surface temperatures. Others are a result of change in the
amount of precipitation that falls as rain rather than snow. Rain in place of snow degrades the
snow fields that release water more slowly and steadily than the bare-ground counterpart.
Rain over glaciers can induce extreme glacial runoff events that cause catastrophic flooding.
Climatic shifts are directly responsible for this type of cryogenic degradation (Collins 1999).
Figure 2. Changes in the permafrost active layer around the North Pole since 1992. Alphanumeric
labels designate study sites (Lemke et al. 2007).
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Environmental changes in the present and near future create a complex web of
management decisions. For example, increasing river flow may have some initial benefits.
Greater river volume increases the immediate water supply and could be harnessed for
hydroelectric power (Ives, Messerli, and Spiess 1997; Anisimov et al. 2007). However, the cost
of such a scheme may not outweigh the benefits. The infrastructure of hydroelectric plants
requires time and money to implement and is vulnerable to slope failure, which would
compromise accessibility, structural integrity, and watershed runoff. In addition, these high
water supplies are not likely to last in the long-term because they are the result of melt that is
not being replenished in equal amount during the winter (Kreutzmann 1999). This example is a
mere glimpse of the policy and management issues faces officials. People are beginning to
understand that the health of the mountains cannot be sacrificed to immediate profits. Longterm mitigation is where monetary and research efforts should have priority (Ives, Messerli,
and Spiess 1997). Much work remains, but progress has certainly been made. The list of
priorities in mountain research and development expanded significantly in progress reports
from the task managers overseeing Agenda 21’s Chapter 13 initiatives. The awareness of
mountain sensitivity as well as cooperation among governments, agencies, and local
populations has seen improvement (Sene and McGuire 1997). The increase in GIS applications
and integration has also vastly improved the efficiency and quality of research efforts on behalf
of the mountains.
Section VII. Models of Change: GISys applications
The strength of GISys lies not in the ability to manage and display data. Rather, the
modeling applications of GISys show the real power of the technology (Heywood, Price, and
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Petch 1994). The past two decades have been dominated by policy motivated studies, which
have yielded much baseline data (Funnell and Price 2003; Heywood, Price, and Petch 1994).
Predictive models of this data show researchers and policymakers where to focus future
initiatives. For example, Khromova and Chernova report on a study to record snow and glacier
extent using GISys. Their work studied glacier dynamics as a means to model climate change.
Their study showed the importance of ice to climate, sea level, power supply, irrigation, and
recreation (Khromova and Chernova 1999). Walsh and his group included very detailed GISysoriented goals in their research. Their study assessed treeline change in light of natural
hazards, avalanche locations, disturbances, and climate variables. This group used remotely
sensed data and land cover data for spatial analysis. They also modeled change within the
alpine environment they studied. The research effort demonstrated that treeline is highly
sensitive to slope, exposure, and climatic conditions (Walsh et al. 1994).
As mentioned previously, global climate change can affect slope stability and local
climate patterns. The impact of climate change on mountain ecosystems was examined by
researchers such as Patrick Halpin. His analysis used GISys to explore the relationship between
climate change and mountain areas. This study used different GCM predictions to demonstrate
the complexity of change that will be experienced in mountain systems. The modeled
conclusion of this study was that mountain ecosystems will be affected by a cascade of
environmental and ecological feedbacks with complicated interactions that will be triggered by
climate change (Halpin 1994). A study of China’s Qinghai-Xizang Plateau used a GISys aided
model to show the affect of climate change in the permafrost layers on the Plateau. According
to the GCM used in this study, permafrost on the Plateau will completely disappear by 2099 (Li
20 | P a g e
and Cheng 1999). Another example of GISys modeling is the snow and ice mapping system
(IMS) from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The IMS model was
developed to automate mapping of snow and ice extents. The model synthesizes data from
satellite images, daily snow and ice ground measurements, and weekly sea ice edge
measurements. The platform is far more efficient and accurate than previous methods of
manually mapping the data (Ramsey 1998).
This is an extraordinarily brief look at GISys applications for climate change in the
mountains. It is merely a glance to show important GISys feedback from current climate
change and impact in mountain environments. GISys can be used and refined with GCM
predictors and ground data to examine future environmental impacts and iteratively model the
subsequent effects and feedbacks. This process must been conducted carefully and with
reliable data (Brown et al. 2003; Klinkenberg 2007). GISys models demonstrate that mountain
systems are complex. Their interaction with climate change is shows further complexity. GISys
aids the study of mountains and climate change, but there is always room for improvement
(Halpin 1994; Heywood, Price, and Petch 1994). Continued research efforts and technological
development must continue to increase understanding and appropriate responses.
Section VII. Concluding remarks
Mountains are important to people and to the environment. The cryogenic regions of
mountains are important for stability and water in the mountains. Resource stability and land
surface stability are important to people and to the health of the environment. Cryogenic and
mountain water sources are essential to the hydrologic processes that hydrant the earth and its
inhabitants. Climate change places the cryosphere in jeopardy. The cascade of feedbacks from
21 | P a g e
change to the cryosphere alone affects the rest of the mountain environment, regional and
global hydrology, and human establishments. In order to preserve these attributes, an active
research plan is essential. Implementation of GISci is a powerful way to combine data and
model the interaction between climate change and mountain environments. The beauty of the
GISys model is that an iterative approach can be taken to examine observed change and predict
future change. Within this workspace, great strides are still needed in understanding natural
systems, developing appropriate technologies, and implementing effective mitigation plans.
The task involves cooperation across the board between nations and within nations. The
importance of sustainability has long been recognized, but its significance is now being realized
by the masses. Change must come not in methods to produce more, but in ways to use less
(Sauer 1956). The water focus of this paper stresses this point. Predictions show freshwater
supplies shrinking. Using water more sustainably is an absolute necessity. Water plans must
include strategies to protect water supplies for natural environments as well as human
populations (Anisimov et al. 2007; Bates et al. 2008). A big step toward global water
sustainability is preservation of the cryosphere. The frozen expanses at the extremes of our
planet are formidable places for humans. But these regions support life cycles around the
globe. Research has shown that climate change can infiltrate this fortress. Precautious must be
taken to prevent degradation of the cryogenic systems (Bates et al. 2008).
A comprehensive geographic perspective is needed for this task to combine physical
science, social science, and advanced geospatial technologies. Returning to Humboldtian
principles, research in this critical area must be holistic (Livingstone 1992). It must look at
physical processes and trends of change. The approach must consider political, societal, and
22 | P a g e
economic constraints. And the resulting mitigation plans need to be communicated relevantly
and effectively to the general population. We only have one earth and it is within our vested
interest to preserve it. This is a tall order, but we must rise to the occasion.
23 | P a g e
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