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Cleft sentences are used to help us focus on a particular part of the sentence and to emphasize what we want to say by introducing it or building up to it with a kind of relative clause. Because there are two parts to the sentence it is called cleft(from the verb cleave) which means divided into two. Cleft sentences are particularly useful in writing where we cannot use intonation for purposes of focus or emphasis, but they are also frequently used in speech. Cleft structures include the reason why, the thing that, the person/people who, the place where, the day when and what-clauses which are usually linked to the clause that we want to focus on with is or was. Compare the following sets of sentences and notice how the cleft structure in each case enables us to select the information we want to focus on: I've come to discuss my future with you. The reason why I've come is to discuss my future with you. Your generosity impresses more than anything else. The thing that impresses me more than anything else isyour generosity. Cleft structures with what-clauses are also often used with does/do/did and with the verb happen when we want to give emphasis to the whole sentence, rather than a particular clause. Compare the following: The police interviewed all the witnesses to the accident first. What the police did first was (to) interview all the witnesses to the accident. It is sometimes very effective to use all instead of what in a cleft structure if you want to focus on one particular thing and nothing else: I want a new coat for Christmas. All I want for Christmas is a new coat. So, there exist the following types of the cleft structures: 1. • It-cleft Emphasis - subject / object / adverbial phrase / prepositional phrase It + to be + emphasized phrase + that /which/who-clause It was their money that he wanted to get (Их деньги – вот что он хотел получить. = He wanted to get their money Modal verbs can also be used in cleft-sentences: It could be your career you have to sacrifice It must have been the manager that convinced him to withdraw his resignation 2. • Wh-cleft Emphasis is on action Wh- clause + to be What I don’t like is being criticised (Что я не люблю, так это, когда меня критикуют. ) = I don’t like being criticized. What he did was (to) sell all their factories. (Что он сделал, это продал все их фабрики. ) 3. • Wh-inside-cleft Emphasis is on person / place / time / reason The person / people who The place where The day when The reason why + to be + emphasized word / phrase The person who called me was Mr. Smith ( Человек, который мне позвонил, был Мистер Смит. ) = Mr. Smith called me. What you need is a haircut What she should do is get a life • All-cleft Emphasis is on noun / verb phrase All /the thing + that/which/who-clause + to be + emphasized word /phrase All (that) we need to do is call them. (Все, что нам нужно сделать – это позвонить им.) = We need to call them. All that she wants is another baby. (Ace of Base) = She wants another baby. • THE + NOUN + DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE + BE as in "The pub (that/which) my friends like is over there", or "The girl who/that spilt my drink is over there" Relative clauses in cleft sentences If a cleft sentence contains a relative clause (as in the above sentence), the grammar of subject and object relative clauses also applies within the cleft sentence. In cleft sentences with object relative clauses, a relative pronoun is necessary; however, in cleft sentences with a subject relative clause, a relative pronoun is optional. Compare the following examples: SUBJECT VERB OBJECT SENTENCE Kevin gets on with Chav SUBJECT CLEFT SENTENCE The person (who/that) Kevin gets on with is Chav OBJECT CLEFT SENTENCE The person who/that gets on with Chav is Kevin PUNCTUATION Defining Relative Clauses Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas. Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean. Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom? Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions. A seaman is someone who works on a ship. Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.) The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice. Non-Defining Relative Clauses Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas. Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this situation it is obvious which girl you mean. Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom? Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that. Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used. Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.