Download Santrock Psychology Updated 7e Preface

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Psychology
U P D AT E D S E V E N T H E D I T I O N
John W. Santrock
University of Texas at Dallas
Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, WI New York San Francisco St. Louis
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PSYCHOLOGY, UPDATED SEVENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright ” 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous edition(s) 2003, 2000, 1997. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
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The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Santrock, John W.
Psychology / John W. Santrock.—Updated 7th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliogical references and indexes.
ISBN 0-07-293776-9 (alk. paper)
1. Psychology—Textbooks. I. Title.
BF121.S265 2005
150—dc22
2003070611
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a
website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not
guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
www.mhhe.com
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Find Balance!
Balance scientific research with real-world applications.
AGREE
example, a psychologist interviewed by Ted Koppel on Nightline
may have certain values concerning government’s responsibility
in caring for the homeless, parents’ responsibility in an adolescent’s use of cocaine, and the responsibility of an individual with
a psychological disorder who has committed mass murder.
Psychotherapists whom people consult about problems
may have certain personal values concerning self-esteem, marriage, sexual conduct, and other topics that influence the advice
they give. For example, one psychotherapist might perceive a
client’s sexual behavior as “sick,” whereas another might think
of it as an adaptive sexual variation.
Psychology professors have certain values about gender,
moral behavior, religion, child rearing, and how to get ahead in
life that might influence what they communicate in their lectures and how they respond to students’ questions. For example, one professor might perceive that a female’s assertive
behavior is too aggressive, whereas another might think of the
behavior as competent.
But wait a minute. Isn’t psychology supposed to be an objective science? As a science, psychology is dedicated to discovering facts about behavior and creating theories to explain
those facts. In this description, there is no mention of values.
The scientific approach requires only that psychology discover
the most dependable facts and generate the best theories possible (Kimble, 1989). In the pure world of science, there is no
place for values. Some critics, though, question whether a view
of science as value-free is realistic (Seligman, Olson, & Zanna,
1996). They argue that—although psychologists often strive to
2.0seek to discover facts about
reduce the role of values as they
behavior—in the court of life, which is psychology’s setting,
values and psychology are sometimes difficult to disentangle.
DISAGREE
1. Human beings are basically good.
2. By changing the environment,
you can change people’s behavior.
3. Intelligence is the most important
human trait.
4. People are too concerned about
themselves.
5. Physical attraction is important
in choosing a mate.
6. Women are becoming too
assertive.
7. Divorce is wrong.
8. Religion is not an appropriate
area of study for psychologists.
9. Money can bring happiness.
10. It is okay to cheat if you don’t
get caught.
The way you responded to these items provides insight into
your values. If you decide to become a psychologist, might your
views on these topics, as well as others, influence the area you
choose to research? Might psychologists’ values influence how
they respond in a media interview? Might clinical psychologists’ values affect the advice they give to clients? Might psychology professors’ values influence the topics they choose to
discuss in class and how they respond to students’ questions?
In some cases, researchers’ values might influence their
choice of research questions. A divorced woman might decide
to study the inadequate involvement and support of noncustodial fathers in their children’s lives rather than the increased
role of fathers in caring for children because of her soured relationship with her ex-husband. An Asian American might
choose to study the importance of conformity to a group’s goals
rather than an individual’s unique contributions to a project
because he or she believes that getting along with others in a
group is more important than an individual’s achievement.
When psychologists are called on as experts, they may make
statements and recommendations that are laden with values. For
What do you think?
Average reaction time (seconds)
Critical Controversy
Is Psychology Value-Free?
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements?
Research
Critical Controversy boxes in each chapter highlight current debates in psychology and pose thought-provoking
questions to encourage students to examine the
evidence on both sides of an issue.
Clearly labeled graphs and explanatory captions help
students become familiar with visual data presentation.
1.5
• Is psychology value-free? Explain.
• How might the culture in which psychologists grow
up influence their values,
and how might those val1.0
ues in turn affect their choice of research topics and
the advice they give to clients in psychotherapy?
• Are religious values appropriate study material for
psychologists? How might
0.5psychologists study religious values?
Expanded and updated coverage of neuroscience and
evolutionary psychology reflects psychology's increasing
emphasis on the biological bases of behavior.
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Age (years)
Cell body
Dendrites
Nucleus
Direction of
nerve impulse
Axon
Axon
New coverage of gender and cross-cultural research,
as well as positive psychology and evolutionary
psychology, is indexed inside the back cover of the
book.
Axon
Myelin sheath
surrounding the axon
Sending Neuron
Receiving Neuron
Applications
You want to break off a relationship that is no longer working for you.
You are sitting in a movie and the people behind you are talking.
Your doctor keeps you waiting more than 20 minutes.
You are standing in line and someone moves in front of you.
Your friend has owed you money for a long time and it is money you could use.
You receive food at a restaurant that is over- or undercooked.
Passive
Manipulative
Aggressive
You are being kept on the phone by a salesperson trying to sell you something
you don’t want.
Psychology and Life
Think about the following situations one at a time. Check which response is most
typical of the way you would behave in that situation.
Assertive
Dealing with Conflict
In each chapter of the text, a Psychology and Life feature invites
students to apply what they've learned to daily life.
You want to ask a major favor of your friend, romantic partner, or roommate.
Psychology’s Careers and Areas of Specialization
Your friends ask you to do something that you don’t feel like doing.
23
You are in a large lecture hall. The instructor is speaking too softly and you know
other students are having trouble hearing what is being said.
You want to start a conversation at a gathering, but you don’t know anyone there.
You are sitting next to someone who is smoking, and the smoke bothers you.
You are talking to someone about something that is important to you, but he or she
doesn’t seem to be listening.
Descriptions and photos of
psychologists at work illustrate
applications of psychology in
various settings plus different
career options for psychology
majors.
You are speaking and someone interrupts you.
You receive an unjust criticism from someone.
In most circumstances, being assertive is the best strategy. However, there may
be some situations in which a different style of interaction is needed. Look at each situation again and determine if the assertive style is always the best strategy and
whether there is any circumstance in which one of the other styles might work best.
Patrick McCarthy is an I/O psychologist who
studies many aspects of organizations, including
organizational change, motivation and work attitudes, and work/family balance.
Environmental psychologist Roberta Feldman in
one of the positive environments she designed.
What are some of the interests of environmental
psychologists?
monitoring what they have read for meaning and periodically summarizing what they
have read (Pressley, 2000, 2003).
Industrial and Organizational Psychology Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology) centers on the workplace, both on the workers and on
the organizations that employ them. I/O psychology is often partitioned into industrial psychology and organizational psychology. Industrial psychology involves personnel and human resource management. Industrial psychology is increasingly
referred to as personnel psychology. Organizational psychology examines the social
and group influences of the organization (Goldstein & Ford, 2002; Muchinsky,
2003).
Patrick McCarthy is an I/O psychologist at Middle Tennessee State University. In
addition to teaching undergraduate and graduate courses, he is a consultant to a
number of companies, such as Procter & Gamble and the U.S. Department of Defense.
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Stay Focused and Learn!
Students need help finding the key ideas in introductory psychology. Santrock's
unique learning system keeps students focused on these ideas so they learn
and remember fundamental psychological concepts.
Chapter Outline and Learning Goals
Chapter Outline
Learning Goals
TYPES OF LEARNING
1
Explain what learning is.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
2
Describe classical conditioning.
3
Discuss operant conditioning.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
4
Understand observational
learning.
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
5
Know about the role of cognition
in learning.
6
Identify biological and cultural
factors in learning.
Learning Goals are linked directly to the primary section headings
in the text and supplementary resources to underscore key ideas.
Pavlov’s Studies
▼
Classical Conditioning in Humans
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Definition of Operant Conditioning
▼
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
▼
Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning
Reach Your Learning Goals
▼
Shaping
Section Maps and Chapter
Summary Map
▼
Principles of Reinforcement
▼
1 TYPES OF LEARNING
Applications of Operant Conditioning
2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov’s Studies
Purposive Behavior
▼
Classical Conditioning in
Humans
Insight Learning
BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS IN LEARNING
Biological Constraints
Primary and secondary headings presented graphically provide
a quick visual overview of the important topics covered in the
chapter.
▼
Cultural Constraints
3 OPERANT CONDITIONING
Definition of Operant
Conditioning
Learning
Skinner’s Approach To
Operant Conditioning
Principles of
Reinforcement
Thorndike’s Law
of Effect
270
Shaping
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Chapter 7 Learning
4 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Learning Goal
At the beginning of each primary section, that section's learning
goal reappears in the form of a question.
Review and Sharpen Your Thinking
1
Explain what learning is.
•
5 COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
Purposive Behavior
Define learning and distinguish between observational and associative
learning.
How do you learn? Think of a behavior you engage in and describe how you
learned it.
Insight Learning
1 Explain what learning is.
●
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov’s Studies
that occurs through experience. Observational learning
is learning by watching what other people do. In associative learning, a connection is made between two events.
Conditioning is the process by which associative learning
occurs. In classical conditioning, organisms learn the association between two stimuli and, in operant conditioning, they learn the association between behavior and a
consequence.
Classical Conditioning
in Humans
6 BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS IN LEARNING
Biological Constraints
Cultural Constraints
300
What is classical conditioning?
It is a nice spring day. A father takes his baby out for a walk. The baby reaches over
to touch a pink flower and is stung by the bumblebee sitting on the petals. The next
day, the baby’s mother brings home some pink flowers. She removes a flower from
the arrangement and takes it over for her baby to smell. The baby cries loudly as
soon as she sees the pink flower. The baby’s panic at the sight of the pink flower
illustrates the learning process of classical conditioning, in which a neutral stimulus (the flower) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus (the pain of a bee
sting) and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response (fear).
Pavlov’s Studies
In the early 1900s, the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was interested in the way the
body digests food. In his experiments, he routinely placed meat powder in a dog’s mouth,
causing the dog to salivate. Pavlov noticed that the meat powder was not the only stimulus that caused the dog to salivate. The dog salivated in response to a number of stimuli associated with the food, such as the sight of the food dish, the sight of the individual
who brought the food into the room, and the sound of the door closing when the food
arrived. Pavlov recognized that the dog’s association of these sights and sounds with the
food was an important type of learning, which came to be called classical conditioning.
Pavlov (the white-bearded gentleman in
the center) is shown demonstrating the
nature of classical conditioning to students at the Military Medical Academy in
Russia.
classical conditioning Learning by
which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and
acquires the capacity to elicit a similar
response.
•
●• Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus
2
Apply Your Knowledge
1. One common association that people have is called a conditioned taste aversion, which occurs when you eat or drink
something and then get sick. A conditioned taste aversion is
most likely to occur when the food or drink is something
that is relatively unfamiliar. Suppose that you have acquired
a conditioned taste aversion to tequila. Identify what the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned
stimulus, and conditioned response are in this example.
2. Positive and negative reinforcement are often difficult concepts to understand. On the following website, examples
and a practice exercise may help you figure out the distinction more easily:
http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm
Describe classical conditioning.
•
becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and
comes to elicit a similar response. Pavlov discovered that
an organism learns the association between an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a conditioned stimulus (CS).
The UCS automatically produces the unconditioned response (UCR). After conditioning (CS-UCS pairing), the
CS elicits the conditioned response (CR) by itself. Acquisition in classical conditioning is the initial linking of
stimuli and responses, which involves a neutral stimulus
being associated with the UCS so that the CS comes to
elicit the CR. Two important aspects of acquisition are
contiguity and contingency/predictability. Generalization in classical conditioning is the tendency of a new
stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned
response. Discrimination in classical conditioning is the
process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not
to others. Extinction in classical conditioning is the
weakening of the CR in the absence of the UCS. Spontaneous recovery is the recurrence of a CR after a time delay without further conditioning.
• In humans, classical conditioning has been applied to explaining and eliminating fears. Counterconditioning, a
classical conditioning procedure for weakening the CR
by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new
response that is incompatible with the fear, has been successful in eliminating fears. Classical conditioning also
can explain pleasant emotions. Some of the behaviors
we you
associate
health
problems
and mental disorders,
3. Think of all of the things
have with
learned
in the
past several
certain aspects
drug
use and immune sysdays. Write down an including
example involving
each ofofthe
followfunctioning,
can involve
classical
ing types of learning:tem
classical
conditioning,
operant
condi-conditioning. Clasconditioning
also hasand
been
applied to consumer
tioning, observationalsical
learning,
latent learning,
insight
behavior.
learning. Which kind
of learning do you use most fre-
•
•
●
quently? Which seems to be the least common for you? Are
conditioning.
3 Discuss
there types of learning
you’veoperant
done that
don’t seem to fit
• Operant
conditioning
is types
a formexclude
of learning in which the
any category? If so,
what aspects
of those
consequences of behavior produce changes in the probathem from these categories?
bility of the behavior’s occurrence. B. F. Skinner described
the behavior of the organism as operant: The behavior
operates on the environment, and the environment in
turn operates on the organism. Whereas classical conditioning involves respondent behavior, operant conditioning involves operant behavior. In most instances,
operant conditioning is better at explaining voluntary
behavior than classical conditioning is.
Thorndike’s law of effect states that behaviors followed
by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
Thorndike’s view that the organism’s behavior is due to
a connection between a stimulus and a response is called
S-R theory.
Skinner believed that the mechanisms of learning are
the same for all species. This led him to study lower animals extensively in the hope that the basic mechanisms
of learning could be more easily understood in organisms simpler than humans. Like Skinner, contemporary
behaviorists study organisms under precisely controlled
conditions so that the connection between the operant
behavior and the specific consequences can be examined
in minute detail.
Shaping is the process of rewarding approximations of
desired behavior in order to shorten the learning process.
Principles of reinforcement include the distinction between positive reinforcement (the frequency of a behavior
increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus)
and negative reinforcement (the frequency of behavior
increases because it is followed by the removal of an
aversive, or unpleasant, stimulus). Positive reinforcement
can be classified as primary reinforcement (using reinforcers that are innately satisfying) and secondary reinforcement (using reinforcers that acquire positive value
through experience). Reinforcement can also be continuous (a behavior is reinforced every time) or partial (a
behavior is reinforced only a portion of the time). Schedules of reinforcement—fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixedinterval, and variable-interval—are timetables that
determine when a behavior will be reinforced. Operant
conditioning involves generalization (giving the same response to similar stimuli), discrimination (responding to
stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced), and extinction (a decreasing tendency to
perform a previously reinforced behavior when reinforcement is stopped). Punishment is a consequence that
decreases the likelihood a behavior will occur. Punishment, through which a behavior is weakened, is different from negative reinforcement, through which a
behavior is strengthened. In positive punishment, a
behavior decreases when it is followed by an unpleasant
stimulus. In negative punishment, a behavior decreases
when a positive stimulus is removed from it. Time-out is
301
Reach Your Learning Goals
The chapter summary restates the Learning Goals and provides
a bulleted review that matches up in a one-to-one fashion with
the bulleted review statements in the section reviews.
Connections
mhhe com/
santrockp7u
In-Psych Plus
For extra help in mastering the material in this chapter, see the
review sections and practice quizzes in the Student Study
Guide, the In-Psych Plus CD-ROM, and the Online Learning
Center.
276
Chapter 7 Learning
Classical conditioning also can be involved in immune system functioning, which
is important for producing antibodies to ward off disease and illness, such as AIDS
and the flu. Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen (Ader, 2000; Ader & Cohen, 1975,
2000) have conducted a number of studies that reveal that classical conditioning can
produce immunosuppression (a decrease in the production of antibodies). The initial
discovery of this link between classical conditioning and immunosuppression came
as a surprise. In the course of studying Pavlovian conditioning, Ader (1974) was
examining how long a conditioned response would last in some laboratory rats. A
conditioned stimulus (saccharin solution) was paired with an unconditioned stimulus, a drug called Cytoxan, which induces nausea. Afterward, while giving the rats
saccharin-laced water without the accompanying Cytoxan, Ader watched to see how
long it would take the rats to forget the association between the two.
Unexpectedly, in the second month of the study, the rats developed a disease and
began to die off. In analyzing the unforeseen result, Ader checked out the properties
of the nausea-inducing drug he had used. He discovered that one of its side effects
was immunosuppression. Thus it turned out that the rats had been classically conditioned to associate sweet water not only with nausea but also with the shutdown of
the immune system. The sweet water apparently had become a CS for immunosuppression. Researchers have found that conditioned immune responses also may occur
in humans (Ader, 2000; Voudouris, Peck, & Coleman, 1985).
Connections
References to review quizzes, crossword puzzles, and additional resources remind students of the text-specific materials available for content review and enrichment.
Review and Sharpen Your Thinking
Learning Goals frame the section reviews, which end with
an exercise designed to hone critical thinking skills.
303
Applying Classical Conditioning: Consumer Psychology Consumer psychology is
the study of how consumers think, feel, reason, and select between different alternatives, such as brands and products. Many contemporary advertisers use classical
conditioning in some way (Perner, 2001). Consider this sequence:
• Beautiful woman (UCS) → emotional arousal (UCR) in males
• Beautiful woman (UCS) paired with an automobile (not yet a CS) many times
• Automobile (CS) → emotional arousal (CR)
In-Psych Plus
Recent research has shown that, if the conditioned stimulus is encountered outside of ads, it doesn’t predict the UCS (Bettman, 2001). Thus classical conditioning
may work best for infrequently encountered products and cases in which the UCS is
associated with only one brand. Also, classical conditioning usually works best when
the CS precedes the UCS in ads.
Not all commercials involve classical conditioning. Some just give information
about the product. The next time you watch TV, observe which ads rely on classical
conditioning. To review the elements of classical conditioning and its applications to
human learning, go to the interactivity “Classical Conditioning 2.”
Review and Sharpen Your Thinking
2
Describe classical conditioning.
•
•
Summarize the classical conditioning process. Include in your description the
following terms: unconditioned stimulus (UCS), conditioned stimulus (CS),
unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR), as well
as acquisition, generalization, discrimination, and extinction/spontaneous
recovery.
Discuss the role of classical conditioning in human phobias and specify other
types of behavior that involve classical conditioning.
Think about an attachment that you or someone you know has for a certain object
or environment. Explain how classical conditioning might account for the pleasant
association.
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Make Connections and Succeed!
Supplementary print and media resources include a variety of review and
assessment tools that carry through the text's emphasis on key ideas,
reinforcing learning and enhancing student success.
Online Learning Center
www.mhhe.com/Santrockp7u
Student Resources Chapter outlines and practice quizzes are keyed
to the text Learning Goals. The student section of the website also
contains flashcards, interactive review exercises, and access, via PowerWeb, to current news about psychology, research tools, and many
other valuable study tools.
Instructor Resources Teaching resources on this passwordprotected site include the Instructor's Course Planner, Image Bank,
PowerPoint files, and Web links to additional resources.
Student Study Guide
A guided review of the chapter is organized by text section and
Learning Goals, as are the three practice tests provided for each
chapter. As in the text, Connections direct students to other
text-correlated resources for additional help in mastering key
ideas and concepts.
Instructor’s Course Planner
The same Learning Goals that reinforce the key ideas in the
text and Study Guide frame the teaching suggestions in this
valuable manual. Chapter overviews, lecture/discussion suggestions, and goal reinforcement activities are a few of the
resources provided in the Instructor's Course Planner.
New! In-Psych Plus CD-ROM
In-Psych Plus features video clips and interactivities that are referenced within the main text. The video clips, chosen for interest and relevance, expand on significant concepts and theories
discussed in the text and are accompanied by summaries and
quizzes. The CD-ROMs also include practice self-tests with feedback and a learning styles assessment, as well as other valuable
features.
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With special appreciation to my wife, Mary Jo
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About the Author
J O H N W. S A N T R O C K received his Ph.D. from the
University of Minnesota in 1973. He taught at the University of Charleston and the University of Georgia before
joining the psychology department at the University of
Texas at Dallas. He has been a member of the editorial
board of Developmental Psychology. His research on father
custody is widely cited and used in expert witness
testimony to promote flexibility and alternative considerations in custody disputes. John has also authored these
exceptional McGraw-Hill texts: Child Development, tenth
edition, Life-Span Development, ninth edition, Children,
eighth edition, Adolescence, tenth edition, and Educational
Psychology, second edition.
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Brief Contents
C HAPTE R
1
What Is Psychology?
C HAPTE R
2
Psychology’s Scientific Methods
C HAPTE R
3
Biological Foundations of Behavior
CHAPTER
4
Human Development
CHAPTER
5
Sensation and Perception
C HAPTE R
6
States of Consciousness
CHAPTER
7
Learning
266
CHAPTER
8
Memory
304
CHAPTER
9
Thinking and Language
C HAPTE R
10
Intelligence
CHAPTER
11
Motivation and Emotion
CHAPTER
12
Personality
CHAPTER
13
Psychological Disorders
CHAPTER
14
Therapies
CHAPTER
15
Stress, Coping, and Health
CHAPTER
16
Social Psychology
2
38
76
116
174
226
348
386
422
474
516
560
600
644
ix
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Contents
Preface xvii
C H A P T E R
1
What Is Psychology?
2
Exploring Psychology 4
Studying the Mind and Behavior 5
A Quest for Answers to Ancient Questions 6
Early Scientific Approaches to Psychology 8
Psychology’s Careers and Areas of Specialization 18
Careers in Psychology 19
Areas of Specialization in Psychology 20
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Is Psychology in Your Future? 25
Contemporary Approaches to Psychology 9
The Behavioral Approach 10
The Psychodynamic Approach 11
The Cognitive Approach 12
The Behavioral Neuroscience Approach 12
The Evolutionary Psychology Approach 13
The Sociocultural Approach 15
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Can Humans Really Be Altruistic? 16
How to Get the Most Out of Psychology 26
Good Study Habits 26
Thinking Critically 29
The Book’s Learning Tools 32
Reach Your Learning Goals 34
Key Terms 36
Apply Your Knowledge 36
Connections 36
A Positive Approach to Psychology 17
The Humanistic Movement 17
The Positive Psychology Movement 17
C H A P T E R
2
Psychology’s Scientific Methods
Exploring Psychology as a Science 40
A Scientific Approach 40
Collaboration 42
The Scientific Method 42
Types of Research 47
Descriptive Research 47
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Writing Might Improve Your Health 48
Correlational Research 53
Experimental Research 56
38
Facing Up to Research Challenges 62
Conducting Ethical Research 63
Minimizing Bias 65
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Is Psychology Value-Free? 66
Being a Wise Consumer of Information About Psychology 68
Reach Your Learning Goals 72
Key Terms 74
Apply Your Knowledge 74
Connections 74
Analyzing and Interpreting Data 59
Descriptive Statistics 59
Inferential Statistics 61
xi
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xii
Contents
C H A P T E R
3
Biological Foundations of Behavior
76
The Nervous System 78
Characteristics 79
Pathways in the Nervous System 80
Divisions of the Nervous System 80
The Endocrine System 102
Neurons 82
Specialized Cell Structure 82
The Neural Impulse 83
Synapses and Neurotransmitters 85
Neural Networks 88
Genetic and Evolutionary Blueprints of Behavior 105
Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA 106
The Study of Genetics 106
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: The Human Genome Project and Your
Genetic Future 107
Genetics and Evolution 110
Reach Your Learning Goals 112
Key Terms 114
Apply Your Knowledge 115
Connections 115
Structures of the Brain and Their Functions 89
How the Brain and Nervous System Are Studied 89
Levels of Organization in the Brain 91
The Cerebral Cortex 95
The Cerebral Hemispheres and Split-Brain Research 98
Integration of Function in the Brain 100
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Are There “His” and “Her” Brains? 101
C H A P T E R
4
Human Development
Exploring Human Development 119
What Is Development? 119
Do Early Experiences Rule Us for Life? 120
How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? 121
Child Development 123
Prenatal Development 123
Physical Development in Childhood 125
Cognitive Development in Childhood 128
Socioemotional Development in Childhood 134
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Parents Bring Up Their Children,
Don’t They? 141
Positive Psychology and Children’s Development 148
Adolescence 149
Positive Psychology and Adolescents 150
C H A P T E R
5
Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair 104
The Brain’s Plasticity and Capacity for Repair 104
Brain Tissue Implants 104
116
Physical Development in Adolescence 151
Cognitive Development in Adolescence 152
Socioemotional Development in Adolescence 153
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Developing a Positive Identity 155
At-Risk Youth 155
Adult Development and Aging 156
Physical Development in Adulthood 156
Cognitive Development in Adulthood 161
Socioemotional Development in Adulthood 164
Positive Psychology and Aging 169
Reach Your Learning Goals 170
Key Terms 172
Apply Your Knowledge 173
Connections 173
Sensation and Perception
How We Sense and Perceive the World 176
Detecting, Processing, and Interpreting Experiences 176
Sensory Receptors and the Brain 178
Thresholds 180
Signal Detection Theory 183
Perceiving Sensory Stimuli 184
Sensory Adaptation 186
The Visual System 187
The Visual Stimulus and the Eye 187
Visual Processing in the Brain 191
Color Vision 194
Perceiving Shape, Depth, Motion, and Constancy 196
Illusions 202
The Auditory System 204
The Nature of Sound and How We Experience It 204
Structures and Functions of the Ear 205
174
Theories of Hearing 207
Auditory Processing in the Brain 208
Localizing Sound 208
Noise Pollution 209
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Love Your Ears 210
Other Senses 211
The Skin Senses 212
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Should We Believe the Claims
of Psychics? 213
The Chemical Senses 216
The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses 219
Perception and Human Factors Psychology 220
Reach Your Learning Goals 222
Key Terms 225
Apply Your Knowledge 225
Connections 225
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C H A P T E R
6
States of Consciousness
The Nature of Consciousness 228
Levels of Awareness 229
Consciousness and the Brain 232
xiii
226
Applications of Hypnosis 248
Sleep and Dreams 232
Biological Rhythms and Sleep 232
Why Do We Need Sleep? 235
Sleep Stages 238
Sleep and Disease 241
Sleep Disorders 241
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Do You Get Enough Sleep? 242
Dreams 243
Psychoactive Drugs 249
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Is Hypnosis a Window to Forgotten
Events? 250
Uses of Psychoactive Drugs 251
Types of Psychoactive Drugs 252
Addiction 261
Reach Your Learning Goals 262
Key Terms 264
Apply Your Knowledge 264
Connections 265
Hypnosis 246
The Nature of Hypnosis 247
Explaining Hypnosis 248
C H A P T E R
7
Learning
266
Types of Learning 268
Observational Learning 291
Classical Conditioning 270
Pavlov’s Studies 270
Classical Conditioning in Humans 274
Cognitive Factors in Learning 292
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Models and Mentors in My Life 293
Purposive Behavior 293
Insight Learning 295
Operant Conditioning 277
Definition of Operant Conditioning 277
Thorndike’s Law of Effect 277
Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning 278
Shaping 279
Principles of Reinforcement 280
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Will Sparing the Rod Spoil
the Child? 287
Applications of Operant Conditioning 288
C H A P T E R
8
Memory
The Nature of Memory 306
Memory Encoding 308
Attention 308
Levels of Processing 308
Elaboration 309
Imagery 310
Memory Storage 311
Sensory Memory 312
Short-Term Memory 313
Long-Term Memory 315
Memory Retrieval 326
Serial Position Effect 327
Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task 327
Retrieval of Autobiographical Memories 330
Retrieval of Emotional Memories 330
Biological and Cultural Factors in Learning 296
Biological Constraints 296
Cultural Constraints 298
Reach Your Learning Goals 300
Key Terms 302
Apply Your Knowledge 303
Connections 303
304
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Recovered Memories or False
Memories? 332
Eyewitness Testimony 333
Forgetting 336
Encoding Failure 336
Retrieval Failure 337
Memory and Study Strategies 339
Encoding Strategies 340
Storage Strategies 342
Retrieval Strategies 342
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Memory and Study Strategies 343
Reach Your Learning Goals 344
Key Terms 346
Apply Your Knowledge 347
Connections 347
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Contents
C H A P T E R
9
Thinking and Language
The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology 351
Language and Thought 368
The Structure of Language 368
The Link Between Language and Cognition 369
Animal Language 371
Concept Formation 353
Functions of Concepts 353
Structure of Concepts 355
Problem Solving 356
Steps in Problem Solving 356
Obstacles to Solving Problems 358
Expertise 360
Critical Thinking, Reasoning, and Decision Making 361
Critical Thinking 362
Reasoning 363
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Sharpening the Saw 364
Decision Making 365
CHAPTER
10
Intelligence
Intelligence Testing 389
Approaches to Testing 389
Criteria of a Good Test of Intelligence 393
Cultural Bias in Testing 395
The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests 396
Neuroscience and Intelligence 397
Head and Brain Size 398
Information Processing Speed 398
Electrical Activity in the Brain 398
Energy Consumption in the Brain 399
Theories of Multiple Intelligences 399
Factor Analysis, Two-Factor Theory, and Multiple-Factor
Theory 400
Gardner’s Theory of Eight Intelligences 400
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory 402
Emotional Intelligence 403
11
Language Acquisition and Development 373
Biological Influences 373
Environmental Influences 374
Early Development of Language 375
Language and Education 378
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Is Bilingual Education a Good Thing? 379
Reach Your Learning Goals 382
Key Terms 384
Apply Your Knowledge 385
Connections 385
386
The Nature of Intelligence 388
C HAPTE R
Evaluating the Multiple-Intelligences Approach 403
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Do People Have a General
Intelligence? 404
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity 405
Mental Retardation 405
Giftedness 406
Creativity 408
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: How Creative Is Your Thinking? 411
The Influence of Heredity and Environment 412
Genetic Influences 412
Environmental Influences 413
Group Influences 415
Reach Your Learning Goals 418
Key Terms 421
Apply Your Knowledge 421
Connections 421
Motivation and Emotion
Approaches to Motivation 425
The Evolutionary Approach 425
Drive Reduction Theory 425
Optimum Arousal Theory 426
The Cognitive Approach 427
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Does Extrinsic Motivation Undermine
Intrinsic Motivation? 429
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs 430
Issues in Motivation 431
Hunger 431
The Biology of Hunger 431
Obesity and Eating Behavior 434
348
422
Dieting 436
Eating Disorders 437
Sexuality 438
The Biology of Sex 439
Cognitive and Sensory/Perceptual Factors 440
Cultural Factors 441
Psychosexual Dysfunctions 442
Sexual Behavior and Orientation 443
Social Cognitive Motives 447
Achievement 447
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: How Goal-Directed Are You? 449
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Affiliation 453
Well-Being 454
Sociocultural Factors 462
Classifying Emotions 465
Reach Your Learning Goals 470
Key Terms 473
Apply Your Knowledge 473
Connections 473
Emotion 455
The Biology of Emotion 456
Cognitive Factors 460
Behavioral Factors 462
CHAPTER
12
Personality
474
Theories of Personality 477
The Big Five Personality Factors 498
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Are You Extraverted or Introverted? 498
Trait-Situation Interaction 499
Evaluating Trait Perspectives 500
Psychodynamic Perspectives 478
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 478
Psychodynamic Dissenters and Revisionists 482
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspectives 484
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives 485
Skinner’s Behaviorism 486
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 486
Evaluating Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives 490
Humanistic Perspectives 490
Rogers’ Approach 491
Maslow’s Approach 492
Self-Esteem 493
Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives 495
Personality Assessment 501
Projective Tests 501
Self-Report Tests 504
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Who Is Projecting What? 505
Behavioral and Cognitive Assessment 508
Assessment in the Selection of Employees 510
Reach Your Learning Goals 512
Key Terms 515
Apply Your Knowledge 515
Connections 515
Trait Perspectives 496
Trait Theories 496
CHAPTER
13
Psychological Disorders
Understanding Psychological Disorders 518
Defining Abnormal Behavior 518
Theoretical Approaches to Psychological Disorders 520
Classifying Abnormal Behavior 522
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Are Psychological Disorders a Myth? 526
Anxiety Disorders 527
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 527
Panic Disorder 528
Phobic Disorders 529
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 530
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 532
Mood Disorders 537
Depressive Disorders 537
14
Therapies
516
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Are You Depressed? 539
Bipolar Disorder 539
Causes of Mood Disorders 540
Suicide 546
Schizophrenia 548
Types of Schizophrenia 549
Causes of Schizophrenia 550
Personality Disorders 553
Odd/Eccentric Cluster 553
Dramatic/Emotionally Problematic Cluster 554
Chronic-Fearfulness/Avoidant Cluster 555
Reach Your Learning Goals 556
Key Terms 558
Apply Your Knowledge 559
Connections 559
Dissociative Disorders 535
Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue 535
Dissociative Identity Disorder 535
CHAPTER
xv
560
Biological Therapies 562
Drug Therapy 563
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Should Depression Be Treated
with Drugs? 565
Electroconvulsive Therapy 566
Psychosurgery 568
Psychotherapies 568
Psychodynamic Therapies 569
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Contents
Humanistic Therapies 572
Behavior Therapies 574
Cognitive Therapies 578
Sociocultural Approaches and Issues in Treatment 584
Group Therapy 584
Family and Couples Therapy 585
Self-Help Support Groups 586
Community Mental Health 587
Cultural Perspectives 588
The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy 589
Research on the Effectiveness of Psychotherapy 589
CHAPTER
15
Stress, Coping, and Health
Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine 603
Stress and Its Sources 604
Personality Factors 604
Environmental Factors 606
Sociocultural Factors 610
Stress Responses 612
General Adaptation Syndrome 612
Fight or Flight, Tend and Befriend 614
Cognitive Appraisal 615
Stress and Illness 616
Stress and the Immune System 616
Stress and Cardiovascular Disease 618
Stress and Cancer 618
Positive Emotions, Illness, and Health 619
Coping Strategies 620
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Can Positive Thinking Make You
Healthy? 621
CHAPTER
16
Social Psychology
Social Thinking 646
Attribution 647
Social Perception 649
Attitudes 653
Social Influence 658
Conformity and Obedience 658
Group Influence 662
Leadership 666
Intergroup Relations 668
Group Identity: Us Versus Them 668
Prejudice 670
Ways to Improve Interethnic Relations 672
Social Interaction 675
Aggression 675
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Does Pornography Lead to Violence
Against Women? 681
Altruism 682
Relationships 686
Attraction 686
Common Themes in Psychotherapy 591
Therapy Integrations 591
Funding and Finding Therapy 592
Mental Health Professionals 593
Guidelines for Seeking Professional Help 594
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Evaluating Whether You Need
a Therapist 595
Reach Your Learning Goals 596
Key Terms 599
Apply Your Knowledge 599
Connections 599
600
Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping 622
Optimism and Positive Thinking 622
Social Support 625
Assertive Behavior 626
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Dealing with Conflict 627
Religion 627
Stress Management Programs 629
Healthful Living 631
Exercising Regularly 631
Eating Healthily 634
Quitting Smoking 635
Making Sound Sexual Decisions 636
Reach Your Learning Goals 640
Key Terms 643
Apply Your Knowledge 643
Connections 643
644
Love 688
Relationships and Gender 689
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: What Is Your Love Like? 690
Loneliness 691
Reach Your Learning Goals 694
Key Terms 697
Apply Your Knowledge 697
Connections 697
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-13
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Preface
Since I started teaching psychology in 1967, my motivation
and love for introducing students to this relevant science have
not wavered. This commitment to relevance and to science
not only has been a foundation of my teaching, but it is also
the heart of this book. In this edition, I’ve kept the theme of
psychology as a relevant science and, in line with current
trends in the discipline, increased the emphasis on the biological aspects of psychology and on the positive changes psychology can help us achieve in our lives. These themes,
together with a stronger focus on the key ideas in psychology,
are the main features of this update of Psychology.
New! Media Integration
References to video clips and interactivities, all drawn from
various McGraw-Hill media resources and chosen for their
interest and relevancy to the main content, appear within
the main text. The In-Psych Plus CD-ROM marginal icon provides an additional, visual reference to the media. Each
video and interactivity that is mentioned in the text appears
on the In-Psych Plus CD-ROM, which is packaged free with
the text. In addition, pedagogy, activities, test questions, and
other features have been created to complement these
video clips and reinforce students’ grasp of the key concepts
they illustrate. These materials are found on the In-Psych
Plus CD-ROM, in the Study Guide, in the Instructor’s
Course Planner, and in the Test Item Files.
Psychology: The Relevant Science
Many students come into the introductory psychology
class asking why they should study psychology when their
major is physics or computer science or French. To a psychologist, the answer is obvious: It will help you to understand yourself and others better. Psychology is relevant to
almost every aspect of daily life. What psychologists have
learned from memory research, for example, can be used
to study more effectively, no matter what the subject is.
Principles of learning can be applied to change undesirable
behavior in children. Knowledge of sensation and perception can be used to more effectively design computers. Research on stress, coping, and health can help people to live
fuller, happier lives.
Writing the preface for Psychology, I am convinced that
the science of psychology is more relevant today than
ever. After September 11, 2001, psychologists and psychiatrists were called on to counsel not only people whose
lives were directly affected by the attacks on the World
Trade Center and the Pentagon but also students, teachers,
parents, and others who were struggling to understand, as
we were, what could trigger such hostility and violence
toward Americans. Psychology teaches us about the roots
of aggression and the influence of groups on individual
behavior. It also suggests strategies for handling stress,
whatever the source. Nothing is more relevant to contemporary life.
In addition to relevance, this edition continues to
stress the scientific nature of the discipline. A hallmark of
the book has always been its focus on research, the foundation of all sciences. Here the latest research findings are
discussed, along with the classic studies that established
psychology as an objective science. There are more than
900 citations from the twenty-first century, including
many from 2002 through 2004. Also, numerous new
graphs show students how scientific data can be presented
visually.
Neuroscience and Biological
Influences on Behavior
The growing emphasis on neuroscience and genetics as the
means to understand the effects of biology on behavior is
also reflected in this edition. Evolutionary psychology, another area of increasing interest, receives increased attention as well. Knowing that students often have difficulty
understanding why it is important to learn biology in a
course on psychology, I’ve taken particular care to present
these topics in a psychological context and to underscore the complex relationship between biology, environment, and behavior wherever appropriate. Neuroscientist
Lawrence Cauller provided outstanding guidance for incorporating stronger biological neuroscience content in
this edition.
Positive Psychology
Currently, there is a movement in psychology to focus attention on the positive contributions psychology can make
to everyday life. Proponents of positive psychology, notably
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, share the belief that for much of
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Preface
the twentieth century the discipline concentrated on the
negative aspects of life and that it’s time to emphasize the
positive side of psychology. Positive psychology offers all of
us the opportunity to take control of our lives and find balance. For this edition, I have revised many of the chapteropening vignettes and examples in the text to highlight
positive outcomes and, with Csikszentmihalyi’s expert guidance, have incorporated material on positive psychology
throughout the book.
Focus on Key Ideas
The most significant instructional challenge facing introductory psychology teachers today is ensuring that students
master the core content of the course. For students overwhelmed by information from lectures, textbooks, the Internet, and other media, it is more difficult than ever to find
the main ideas in their courses. To address these challenges
and help students achieve the best possible outcome, I have
developed a learning system for this edition that emphasizes
basic concepts and ideas, encourages review, and promotes
critical thinking. This system frames the presentation in the
text and the supplements, providing a truly integrated package that reinforces learning and gives instructors the tools
they need to assess students’ grasp of core concepts and
ideas.
The learning system has several components, all centered on three to six key ideas per chapter. These ideas are
encapsulated in learning goals, which correspond with the
chapter’s main headings, as shown at the opening of each
chapter. The learning goals reappear at several places in the
chapter: as a question at the beginning of a new topic, in a
guided review at the end of the section, and again in a summary at the end of the chapter. Content maps of the section
and subsection headings accompany the learning goal question at the beginning of each major section. Together with a
complete chapter map at the end of the chapter, the section
maps provide a visual guide to the core concepts that support the learning goals.
To encourage students to apply what they’ve learned,
and increase the likelihood that they will remember the material, the learning system includes critical thinking questions keyed to the learning goals in the “Review and
Sharpen Your Thinking” sections. Additionally, “What do
you think?” exercises accompany each of the new Critical
Controversy boxes and at least three critical thinking exercises follow the review section at the end of each chapter in
a section titled“Apply Your Knowledge.” For students who
have access to the Web, the end-of-chapter exercises include
at least one Web-based activity.
Incorporating the learning goals and maps in the student supplements reinforces the lessons from the text and
eliminates the confusion many students have about how to
use the supplements to boost their performance in the
course.
Changes in Coverage
Instructors who have used previous editions of this text will
find much in the seventh edition that’s different and much
that hasn’t changed. In addition to increased emphasis on
neuroscience, genetics, evolutionary psychology, and positive psychology, the seventh edition contains increased coverage of diversity, controversies, and careers in psychology.
This material is presented where appropriate throughout
the book.
The table of contents and chapter sequence remain the
same as in the sixth edition, except that human development
now falls closer to the beginning of the book (chapter 4). With
this change, instructors can cover a topic of high student
interest early in the course, while the principles of genetics
(chapter 3) are still fresh in students’ minds, and later
incorporate the material in their discussions of learning,
cognition, and language.
Although the number of chapters and their topics are
unchanged, the substance and presentation in each chapter
have been revised thoroughly. Some of the detail that is less
relevant today than it once was has been pruned to make
room for cutting-edge research and some of the presentation was reconceptualized to focus on the key ideas reflected
in the learning goals. Although there isn’t enough space
here to list all of the changes in this edition, here are the
highlights:
CHAPTER 1
What Is Psychology?
• Expanded, updated coverage of the evolutionary psychology approach and a new section on positive
approaches to psychology, including the humanistic
movement and the positive psychology movement
• Expanded treatment of psychology’s careers, including
descriptions of the work that different types of psychologists do
• New section added on how to get the most out of psychology, focusing on study habits and skills
CHAPTER 2
Psychology’s Scientific Methods
• New opening discussion of attitudes central to the
scientific approach and on collaboration in science
• Introduction of James Pennebaker’s research as an
extended example of the scientific method and positive
psychology
• Reorganized section on research methods focusing on
descriptive, correlational, and experimental research
and including new coverage of positive and negative
correlations and their interpretation, as well as recent
research on bias and the placebo effect
• New introduction to data analysis and interpretation,
with explanation of descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics
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Preface
CHAPTER 3
Biological Foundations of Behavior
• Reorganized chapter now starts with a discussion of
the characteristics of the nervous system, focusing on
complexity, integration, adaptability, and electrochemical transmission
• Revised presentation of neuron structure and function,
including new material on drugs, neurotransmitters,
and neural networks
• Updated coverage of functioning in the left and right
hemispheres of the brain and many new drawings of
the brain
• Separate section on the endocrine system
• Expanded and updated discussion of neurogenesis
• New section on genetics and evolution
CHAPTER 4
Human Development
• Nature and nurture section now includes a discussion
of genotype and phenotype, as well as a subsection on
optimal experiences
• Added coverage on the brain and how it changes from
infancy to adulthood
• Revised discussion of socioemotional development in
childhood includes the effects of divorce, positive parenting, ethnic and cultural differences, and gender
development
• New sections on positive psychology and development
in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
• Expanded discussion of biological aspects of aging,
including new figures on telomeres and aging and
updated information on Alzheimer’s disease
• Updated coverage of cognitive changes and aging,
including new figures on longitudinal changes in six
intellectual abilities and on the relation of age to
reaction time
• Discussion of John Gottman’s work on what makes a
successful marriage and of Laura Carstensen’s research
on emotion, social networks, and aging, including new
figures on aging and remembering emotional material
CHAPTER 5
Sensation and Perception
• Completely revised discussion of how we sense and
perceive the world now includes transduction, bottomup and top-down processing, new examples of signal
detection theory, and selective attention
• New coverage on parallel processing in the visual cortex and on the process of binding in neural pathways
and how it functions in visual perception
• Cochlear implants and sound localization added to discussion of the auditory system
• Discussion of parallel processing in touch
• Expanded coverage of pain, including new discussion
of the “fast” and “slow” pain pathways, plus pain control and treatment
xix
• New section on human factors and perception, including recent research of Susan Lederman and Roberta
Klatsky and of Robert McCann at NASA
CHAPTER 6
States of Consciousness
• Neuroscience coverage incorporated in sections on
consciousness, stages of sleep, and psychoactive drugs
• Greater coverage of circadian rhythms, including the
suprachiasmatic nucleus
• New coverage of the role of sleep in the storage and
maintenance of long-term memory
• Addition of recent research on sleep deprivation in
adolescents and older adults
• New section on sleep and disease
• Inclusion of new research on dream content across
cultures
• Expanded and updated material on the activationsynthesis theory of dreaming
• Most recent data on trends in adolescent drug use
(Johnston, O’Malley, & Bachman, 2001)
CHAPTER 7
Learning
• Expanded and clarified discussion of classical conditioning, including new examples, such as fear of the
dentist and how it varies across cultures; a new section
on the role of classical conditioning in health problems;
and applications to consumer psychology
• Expanded, improved, easier-to-understand examples
of positive and negative reinforcement
• Expanded and easier-to-understand examples in comparing punishment and negative reinforcement
• Expanded applications of operant conditioning, including the use of shaping and behavior modification in
the classroom
CHAPTER 8
Memory
• Revised coverage of memory encoding includes the
effects of divided attention
• New discussion of recent research on how verbal
working memory can be impaired by negative emotion, and on how writing about negative emotional
events can improve working memory
• Revised coverage of memory storage includes new
sections on prospective memory and on connectionist
networks and memory, plus a discussion of long-term
potentiation
• Revised discussion of forgetting includes Ebbinghaus’
Forgetting Curve, decay and transience, and a new
section on motivated forgetting
• Complete reorganization of memory and study strategy
section to correspond to organization of the section on
memory
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Preface
CHAPTER 9
Thinking and Language
• Expanded coverage of concepts, including new sections
on the functions and structures of concepts
• New section on expertise, including four ways that experts solve problems differently than novices do
• Earlier discussion of the link between cognition and
language
• Revised section on language acquisition and development includes material on the level of maternal
speech to infants and its effects on vocabulary development in infants, a new figure on language milestones, a discussion of how young children find the
boundaries between words, and recent research on
how long it takes to become competent at a second
language
CHAPTER 10
Intelligence
• Intelligence testing now cohesively discussed in opening section
• New section on neuroscience and intelligence with
subsections on head and brain size, information
processing speed, electrical activity in the brain, and
energy consumption in the brain
• Added sections on theories of multiple and emotional
intelligence, including a comparison of Gardner’s,
Sternberg’s, and Mayer/Salovy theories of intelligence
• New section on the influence of heredity and environment includes the research of Craig Ramey and colleagues, as well as gender and cultural comparisons
CHAPTER 11
Motivation and Emotion
• Section on motivation theory now includes the evolutionary approach to motivation, arousal and sensation
seeking, expanded coverage of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation, and a discussion of the importance of selfgenerated goals
• Hunger section includes expanded and updated discussion of blood chemistry and the role of leptin in obesity, new material on neurotransmitters in the section
on brain processes and hunger, new data on obesity in
the United States, and more coverage of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
• Social cognitive motivation section now includes a
cross-cultural comparison of math achievement in the
United States, Japan, and Taiwan; achievement applications in the workplace and in sports; and discussions
of the motivation for affiliation and well-being
• Section on emotion includes a new discussion of the
roles of neural circuits and neurotransmitters, including Joseph LeDoux’s concept of direct and indirect
pathways for fear in the brain, and of the links between emotion and the brain’s hemispheres
• New focus on positive emotions, including Barbara
Frederickson’s research on how they might enhance
people’s well-being and David Buss’ ideas on the
evolved mechanisms that can produce a deep sense of
happiness
CHAPTER 12
Personality
• Issues in the study of personality now at beginning of
chapter
• Social cognitive theory section revised to include discussions of personal control, locus of control, and
optimism
• New figure showing the link between self-efficacy and
smoking cessation
• New discussion of changes in self-esteem across the life
span, including new figure based on 2002 research
study
• Section on personality assessment expanded to include
discussion of the big five factors, locus of control, and
the selection of employees
CHAPTER 13
Psychological Disorders
• The multiaxial system in the DSM-IV covered in greater
depth, including a new figure on the major categories
of psychological disorders, organized according to
Axis I and Axis II
• Introduction of concept of etiology, new discussion of
the etiology of anxiety disorders, and expanded discussion of post-traumatic stress disorder
• Added material on the hidden observer concept applied to dissociative disorders
• Updated discussion of mood disorders, including new
coverage on neurobiological abnormalities, new material on the depressive realism view of depression, and
several new figures
• New section on suicide, including coverage of suicide
rates across cultures
• Expanded discussion of schizophrenia, including recent
information about heredity and schizophrenia, as well
as neurobiological factors and case studies
CHAPTER 14
Therapies
• Substantially reorganized chapter with biological therapies now covered in the first section
• Updated discussion and figures on the effects of drug
therapies, including Prozac and Risperdal
• New sections on cognitive behavior therapy and using
cognitive therapy to treat psychological disorders
• New section on sociocultural approaches and issues,
including new coverage of the community mental
health movement
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Preface
CHAPTER 15
Stress, Coping, and Health
• Reorganization of stress discussion to focus on sources
and responses
• New section on coping strategies with new coverage of
problem-focused and emotion-focused coping, optimism, and positive thinking and the role of religion in
helping people cope with stress
• Section on healthful living updated with new coverage
of the role of the antidepressant Zyban in helping people quit smoking, as well as the effective rates of other
approaches, such as nicotine patches
CHAPTER 16
Social Psychology
• Revised social influence section with expanded discussion of symptoms of groupthink and strategies for
avoiding groupthink, as well as a discussion of leadership styles in women and men
• Expanded, updated discussion of prejudice focusing on
the reasons people develop prejudice
• Updated section on social interaction, including discussion of neurotransmitters and aggression, recent information on children’s TV viewing habits and possible
links to aggression, and updated coverage of trends in
altruism among U.S. college students
• In relationships section, addition of recent research on
gender and relationships; new research on loneliness,
stress, and health; and new discussion of loneliness
and technology
Print and Media Supplements
For the Student
the text: chapter overview, learning objectives, guided review (for each section), three practice tests, essay questions, crossword puzzle, learning goal checklist, and
diagram labeling exercises.
Psych Online This supplement is designed to help students get the most out of the Internet for psychology research and provides general resource locations. Psychology
sites are grouped by topic with a brief explanation of each
site. Included in this booklet are a number of general resource sites for students seeking help.
Online Learning Center for Students The official
website for the text contains chapter outlines, practice
quizzes that can be e-mailed to the professor, key term
flashcards, interactive exercises, Internet activities, Web
links to relevant psychology sites, drag-and-drop labeling
exercises, Internet primer, career appendix, and a statistics
primer. www.mhhe.com/Santrockp7u.
For the Instructor
Instructor’s Course Planner
Susan Weldon, Eastern Michigan University
This manual provides many useful tools to enhance your
teaching. In each chapter, you will find teaching objectives,
chapter overviews, key terms, Teaching the Chapter,
lecture/discussion suggestions, goal reinforcement classroom
activities, Experiencing Psychology boxed feature, critical
thinking questions, video/media suggestions, and references
and sources of bibliographical information.
PowerWeb This unique online tool provides students
Test Item Files
with current articles, curriculum-based materials, weekly
updates with assessment, informative and timely world
news, Web links, research tools, study tools, and interactive
exercises. A PowerWeb access card is packaged FREE with
each new copy of the text.
Test Item File I: Ron Mulson, Hudson Valley
Community College
New! In-Psych Plus Student CD-ROM In-Psych Plus sets
Test Item File III: Susan Weldon, Eastern
Michigan University
a new standard for introductory psychology multimedia.
In-Psych Plus is organized according to the text chapter outlines and features video clips, audio clips, and interactive exercises chosen to illustrate especially difficult core concepts in
introductory psychology. In-Psych Plus also includes a pre-test,
follow-up assignments, Web resources, chapter quizzes, a student research guide, and an interactive timeline that puts
events, key figures, and research in historical perspective.
Study Guide
Ruth Hallongren, Triton College
Designed to reinforce the key ideas in the text, the study
guide contains the following features for each chapter of
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Test Item File II: Susan E. Swithers, Purdue
University
Three Test Item Files provide you with the widest variety of
questions to last the life of this edition. The questions in the
Test Item Files are also available on Brownstone, a powerful
but accessible test-generating program that McGraw-Hill
offers on a hybrid CD-ROM. With Brownstone, you can easily select questions and print tests and answer keys. You can
also customize questions, headings, and instructions; add or
import your own questions; and print tests in a choice of
printer-supported fonts.
PowerPoint Lectures Available on the Internet, these
presentations cover the key points of each chapter and
include charts and graphs from the text. Helpful lecture
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Preface
guidelines are provided in the Notes section for each slide.
These presentations can be used as they are or can be modified to meet your needs.
Overhead Transparencies More than 70 key images
from the text are available upon adoption. A separate package, Introductory Psychology Transparency Set, provides more
than 100 additional images illustrating key concepts in general psychology.
Online Learning Center for Instructors The passwordprotected instructor side of the text website contains the Instructor’s Manual, a sample chapter from the text,
PowerPoint Presentations, Web links, and other teaching resources. www.mhhe.com/Santrockp74u
PageOutTM Build your own course website in less than an
hour. You don’t have to be a computer whiz to create a website, especially with an exclusive McGraw-Hill product called
PageOut. It requires no prior knowledge of HTML, no long
hours of coding, and no design skills on your part. With PageOut, even the most inexperienced computer user can quickly
and easily create a professional-looking course website. Simply fill in templates with your information and with content
provided by McGraw-Hill, choose a design, and you’ve got a
website specifically designed for your course. Best of all, it’s
FREE! Visit us at www.pageout.net to find out more.
Linda E. Flickinger, St. Clair County Community
College
Edwin E. Gantt, Brigham Young University
Debra L. Hollister, Valencia Community College
Richard Kandus, Mt. San Jacinto College
Maria LeBaron, Randolph Community College
Brennis Lucero-Wagoner, California State University–
Northridge
Wendy Mills, San Jacinto College North
Doug Peterson, University of South Dakota
James S. Previte, Victor Valley College
Steven V. Rouse, Pepperdine University
John Ruys, University of California–Davis
H.R. Schiffman, Rutgers University
Susan Spencer, Eastern Oklahoma State College
Katharine Webb, Maria College
Fred Whitford, Montana State University
Expert Reviewers of the Updated
Seventh Edition
In addition, I would like to thank the following expert
reviewers, who provided in-depth comments in the areas of
neuroscience and cognitive psychology:
James C. Bartlett, University of Texas at Dallas
Mike Kilgard, University of Texas at Dallas
Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM This comprehensive
In-Depth Reviewers of the Seventh Edition
CD-ROM includes the contents of the Instructor’s Course
Planner; Test Item Files in computerized, Word, and Rich
Text versions; an image gallery; and PowerPoint slides.
The Presentation Manager provides an easy-to-use interface for the design and delivery of multimedia classroom
presentations.
I benefited considerably from the advice and analysis provided
by a number of in-depth reviewers of the book’s seventh edition. The following individuals provided this input:
Acknowledgments
Many people guided this update of Psychology. The McGrawHill team of Steve DeBow, president; Thalia Dorwick, editor
in chief; Stephen Rutter, publisher; Melissa Caughlin, marketing manager; Judith Kromm, director of development;
and Sienne Patch, developmental editor, all played key roles
and spent long hours in the planning, revision, and publication process for this update.
Reviewers of the Updated Seventh Edition
The following psychologists and instructors provided comments and suggestions, which helped me to improve and
update this text:
Tamara L. Brown, University of Kentucky
Peter B. Crabb, Pennsylvania State University–Abington
William Fabricius, Arizona State University
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Claremont Graduate
University (positive psychology)
Larry Cauller, University of Texas at Dallas
(neuroscience)
Susan Swithers, Purdue University (chapters 3 and 5
and author of end-of-chapter exercises)
John Mitterer, Brock University (author of many of the
Critical Controversy boxes)
Meredith Stanford-Pollack, University of
Massachusetts at Lowell (diversity)
Saera Khan, Western Washington University
(illustrations)
Reviewers of the Seventh Edition
The following psychologists also helped to make the seventh
edition a much better text through their thoughtful reviews:
Richard Anderson, Bowling Green State University
Jim Backlund, Kirtland Community College
Stella B. Baldwin, Wake Technical Community College
Pearl Berman, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Joy L. Berrenberg, University of Colorado at Denver
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Preface
Frederick M. Brown, Penn State University
Richard Cavasina, California University of Pennsylvania
George A. Cicala, University of Delaware
Pamela Costa, Tacoma Commmunity College
Donna Dahlgren, Indiana University Southeast
Leta Fenell, Chesapeake College
Roseanne L. Flores, Hunter College
Bety Jane Fratzke, Indiana Wesleyan University
Robert Gallen, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
J. P. Garofalo, University of Pittsburgh
Michael Kaye Garza, Brookhaven College
Roderick C. Gillis, University of Miami
Leslie Grout, Hudson Valley Community College
Arthur Gutman, Florida Institute of Technology
Christine Harness, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee
James R. Heard, Antelope Valley College
Paul Hernandez, South Texas Community College
Karen Jordan, University of Illinois at Chicago
Kevin Keating, Broward Community College
Saera Khan, Western Washington University
Brian Kim, University of Maryland, College Park
Michele K. Lewis, Northern Virginia Community
College, Annandale
Wanda McCarthy, Northern Kentucky University
Diane Martichuski, University of Colorado at Boulder
Glenn E. Meyer, Trinity University
Fred Miller, Oregon Health Sciences University,
Portland Community College
Richard Miller, Western Kentucky University
Ann Miner, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Arthur G. Olguin, Santa Barbara City College
Barbara Radigan, Community College of Allegheny
County, Allegheny Campus
Pamela Regan, California State University, Los Angeles
Bob Riesenberg, Whatcom Community College
Susan J. Shapiro, Indiana University East
John E. Sparrow, University of New Hampshire,
Manchester
Meredith Stanford-Pollock, University of
Massachusetts at Lowell
Susan Swithers, Purdue University
Jeremy Turner, The University of Tennessee at Martin
David Wasieleski, Valdosta State University
Marek Wosinski, Arizona State University
Reviewers of Previous Editions
The following psychologists shared their comments and ideas
or contributed content for previous editions of Psychology:
Valerie Ahl, University of Wisconsin–Madison; Susan
xxiii
Amato, Boise State University; Jim Backlund, Kirtland Community College; James Bartlett, University of Texas–Dallas;
Jackson Beatty, UCLA; Ludy Benjamin, Texas A&M; John
Best, Eastern Illinois University; Michelle Boyer-Pennington,
Middle Tennessee State University; Charles Brewer, Clemson
University; Richard Brislin, University of Hawaii; David Buss,
University of Texas, Austin; James Calhoun, University of
Georgia; Lillian Comas-Diaz, Transcultural Mental Health
Institute; Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Claremont Graduate
University; Florence Denmark, Pace University; Ellen
Dennehy, University of Texas, Dallas; Kim Dielmann, University of Central Arkansas; G. William Domhoff, University
of California–Santa Cruz; James Francis, San Jacinto College; Stanley Gaines, Pomona College; Robert Gifford, University of Victoria; James Greer, Louisiana State University;
Jean Berko Gleason, Boston University; Richard Halgin, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; John Harvey; University
of Iowa; N.C. Higgins, University of North British Columbia;
James J. Johnson, Illinois State University; James Jones,
University of Delaware; Seth Kalichman, Georgia State University; Laura King, Southern Methodist University; Paul R.
Kleinginna, Georgia Southern University; Linda Kline, California State University, Chico; Karen Kopera-Frye, The University of Akron; Phil Kraemer, University of Kentucky; Eric
Landrum, Boise State University; Gary D. Laver, California
Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo; Marta Losonczy,
Salisbury State University; Karen E. Luh, University of
Wisconsin, Madison; Jerry Marshall, University of Central
Florida; Vicki Mays, University of California–Los Angeles;
David Mostofsky, Boston University; Carol Nemeroff, Arizona
State University; David Neufeldt, Hutchinson Community
College; Illene Noppe, University of Wisconsin–Green Bay;
Cindy Nordstrom, Illinois State University; Alice O’Toole,
University of Texas–Dallas; Raymond Paloutzian, Westmont
College; David Penn, Louisiana State University; James
Pennebaker, University of Texas–Austin; Jeffrey Pedroza,
Lansing Community College; Lawrence A. Pervin, Rutgers
University; Michelle Perry, University of Illinois at Urbana,
Champaign; Vincent Punzo, Earlham College; Ed Raymaker,
Eastern Main Technical College; Daniel Schacter, Harvard
University; Judith A. Sheiman, Kutztown University; Paula
Shear, University of Cincinnati; Cynthia Sifonis, University
of Illinois; Charles M. Slem, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo; Steven Smith, Texas A&M; Keith E.
Stanovich, University of Toronto; Barry Stein, Tennessee
Technological University; Jutta M. Street, Wake Technical
Community College; Roger M. Tarpy, Jr., Bucknell University; Christopher Taylor, University of Arizona; Leonard
Williams, Rowan University; Michael Zickar, Bowling Green
State University.