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spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page i impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Psychology U P D AT E D S E V E N T H E D I T I O N John W. Santrock University of Texas at Dallas Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, WI New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto spy7fmpgi_xxv 3/30/04 01:09 AM Page ii PSYCHOLOGY, UPDATED SEVENTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright ” 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous edition(s) 2003, 2000, 1997. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on recycled, acid-free paper containing 10% postconsumer waste. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 VNH/VNH 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 ISBN 0-07-293776-9 Vice president and editor-in-chief: Thalia Dorwick Publisher: Stephen D. Rutter Senior developmental editor: Judith Kromm Developmental editor: Sienne Patch Marketing manager: Melissa Caughlin Project manager: Richard H. Hecker Production supervisor: Carol Bielski Senior media technology producer: Sean Crowley Designer: Preston Thomas Illustrators: John & Judy Waller and EPS, Inc. Cover image: © Moonrunner Design Manager, Art: Robin Mouat Photo research coordinator: Alexandra Ambrose Lead supplement producer: Marc Mattson Compositor: The GTS Companies Typeface: 9.5/12 Meridian Roman Printer: Von Hoffman Press The credits section for this book begins on page C-1 and is considered an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Santrock, John W. Psychology / John W. Santrock.—Updated 7th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliogical references and indexes. ISBN 0-07-293776-9 (alk. paper) 1. Psychology—Textbooks. I. Title. BF121.S265 2005 150—dc22 2003070611 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill, and McGraw-Hill does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. www.mhhe.com spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 3:35 PM Page iii impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Find Balance! Balance scientific research with real-world applications. AGREE example, a psychologist interviewed by Ted Koppel on Nightline may have certain values concerning government’s responsibility in caring for the homeless, parents’ responsibility in an adolescent’s use of cocaine, and the responsibility of an individual with a psychological disorder who has committed mass murder. Psychotherapists whom people consult about problems may have certain personal values concerning self-esteem, marriage, sexual conduct, and other topics that influence the advice they give. For example, one psychotherapist might perceive a client’s sexual behavior as “sick,” whereas another might think of it as an adaptive sexual variation. Psychology professors have certain values about gender, moral behavior, religion, child rearing, and how to get ahead in life that might influence what they communicate in their lectures and how they respond to students’ questions. For example, one professor might perceive that a female’s assertive behavior is too aggressive, whereas another might think of the behavior as competent. But wait a minute. Isn’t psychology supposed to be an objective science? As a science, psychology is dedicated to discovering facts about behavior and creating theories to explain those facts. In this description, there is no mention of values. The scientific approach requires only that psychology discover the most dependable facts and generate the best theories possible (Kimble, 1989). In the pure world of science, there is no place for values. Some critics, though, question whether a view of science as value-free is realistic (Seligman, Olson, & Zanna, 1996). They argue that—although psychologists often strive to 2.0seek to discover facts about reduce the role of values as they behavior—in the court of life, which is psychology’s setting, values and psychology are sometimes difficult to disentangle. DISAGREE 1. Human beings are basically good. 2. By changing the environment, you can change people’s behavior. 3. Intelligence is the most important human trait. 4. People are too concerned about themselves. 5. Physical attraction is important in choosing a mate. 6. Women are becoming too assertive. 7. Divorce is wrong. 8. Religion is not an appropriate area of study for psychologists. 9. Money can bring happiness. 10. It is okay to cheat if you don’t get caught. The way you responded to these items provides insight into your values. If you decide to become a psychologist, might your views on these topics, as well as others, influence the area you choose to research? Might psychologists’ values influence how they respond in a media interview? Might clinical psychologists’ values affect the advice they give to clients? Might psychology professors’ values influence the topics they choose to discuss in class and how they respond to students’ questions? In some cases, researchers’ values might influence their choice of research questions. A divorced woman might decide to study the inadequate involvement and support of noncustodial fathers in their children’s lives rather than the increased role of fathers in caring for children because of her soured relationship with her ex-husband. An Asian American might choose to study the importance of conformity to a group’s goals rather than an individual’s unique contributions to a project because he or she believes that getting along with others in a group is more important than an individual’s achievement. When psychologists are called on as experts, they may make statements and recommendations that are laden with values. For What do you think? Average reaction time (seconds) Critical Controversy Is Psychology Value-Free? Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Research Critical Controversy boxes in each chapter highlight current debates in psychology and pose thought-provoking questions to encourage students to examine the evidence on both sides of an issue. Clearly labeled graphs and explanatory captions help students become familiar with visual data presentation. 1.5 • Is psychology value-free? Explain. • How might the culture in which psychologists grow up influence their values, and how might those val1.0 ues in turn affect their choice of research topics and the advice they give to clients in psychotherapy? • Are religious values appropriate study material for psychologists? How might 0.5psychologists study religious values? Expanded and updated coverage of neuroscience and evolutionary psychology reflects psychology's increasing emphasis on the biological bases of behavior. 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Age (years) Cell body Dendrites Nucleus Direction of nerve impulse Axon Axon New coverage of gender and cross-cultural research, as well as positive psychology and evolutionary psychology, is indexed inside the back cover of the book. Axon Myelin sheath surrounding the axon Sending Neuron Receiving Neuron Applications You want to break off a relationship that is no longer working for you. You are sitting in a movie and the people behind you are talking. Your doctor keeps you waiting more than 20 minutes. You are standing in line and someone moves in front of you. Your friend has owed you money for a long time and it is money you could use. You receive food at a restaurant that is over- or undercooked. Passive Manipulative Aggressive You are being kept on the phone by a salesperson trying to sell you something you don’t want. Psychology and Life Think about the following situations one at a time. Check which response is most typical of the way you would behave in that situation. Assertive Dealing with Conflict In each chapter of the text, a Psychology and Life feature invites students to apply what they've learned to daily life. You want to ask a major favor of your friend, romantic partner, or roommate. Psychology’s Careers and Areas of Specialization Your friends ask you to do something that you don’t feel like doing. 23 You are in a large lecture hall. The instructor is speaking too softly and you know other students are having trouble hearing what is being said. You want to start a conversation at a gathering, but you don’t know anyone there. You are sitting next to someone who is smoking, and the smoke bothers you. You are talking to someone about something that is important to you, but he or she doesn’t seem to be listening. Descriptions and photos of psychologists at work illustrate applications of psychology in various settings plus different career options for psychology majors. You are speaking and someone interrupts you. You receive an unjust criticism from someone. In most circumstances, being assertive is the best strategy. However, there may be some situations in which a different style of interaction is needed. Look at each situation again and determine if the assertive style is always the best strategy and whether there is any circumstance in which one of the other styles might work best. Patrick McCarthy is an I/O psychologist who studies many aspects of organizations, including organizational change, motivation and work attitudes, and work/family balance. Environmental psychologist Roberta Feldman in one of the positive environments she designed. What are some of the interests of environmental psychologists? monitoring what they have read for meaning and periodically summarizing what they have read (Pressley, 2000, 2003). Industrial and Organizational Psychology Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology) centers on the workplace, both on the workers and on the organizations that employ them. I/O psychology is often partitioned into industrial psychology and organizational psychology. Industrial psychology involves personnel and human resource management. Industrial psychology is increasingly referred to as personnel psychology. Organizational psychology examines the social and group influences of the organization (Goldstein & Ford, 2002; Muchinsky, 2003). Patrick McCarthy is an I/O psychologist at Middle Tennessee State University. In addition to teaching undergraduate and graduate courses, he is a consultant to a number of companies, such as Procter & Gamble and the U.S. Department of Defense. l d h i i li ( h f ) spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 3:35 PM Page iv impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Stay Focused and Learn! Students need help finding the key ideas in introductory psychology. Santrock's unique learning system keeps students focused on these ideas so they learn and remember fundamental psychological concepts. Chapter Outline and Learning Goals Chapter Outline Learning Goals TYPES OF LEARNING 1 Explain what learning is. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 2 Describe classical conditioning. 3 Discuss operant conditioning. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 4 Understand observational learning. COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING 5 Know about the role of cognition in learning. 6 Identify biological and cultural factors in learning. Learning Goals are linked directly to the primary section headings in the text and supplementary resources to underscore key ideas. Pavlov’s Studies ▼ Classical Conditioning in Humans OPERANT CONDITIONING Definition of Operant Conditioning ▼ Thorndike’s Law of Effect ▼ Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning Reach Your Learning Goals ▼ Shaping Section Maps and Chapter Summary Map ▼ Principles of Reinforcement ▼ 1 TYPES OF LEARNING Applications of Operant Conditioning 2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Pavlov’s Studies Purposive Behavior ▼ Classical Conditioning in Humans Insight Learning BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS IN LEARNING Biological Constraints Primary and secondary headings presented graphically provide a quick visual overview of the important topics covered in the chapter. ▼ Cultural Constraints 3 OPERANT CONDITIONING Definition of Operant Conditioning Learning Skinner’s Approach To Operant Conditioning Principles of Reinforcement Thorndike’s Law of Effect 270 Shaping Applications of Operant Conditioning Chapter 7 Learning 4 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Learning Goal At the beginning of each primary section, that section's learning goal reappears in the form of a question. Review and Sharpen Your Thinking 1 Explain what learning is. • 5 COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING Purposive Behavior Define learning and distinguish between observational and associative learning. How do you learn? Think of a behavior you engage in and describe how you learned it. Insight Learning 1 Explain what learning is. ● • Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior 2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Pavlov’s Studies that occurs through experience. Observational learning is learning by watching what other people do. In associative learning, a connection is made between two events. Conditioning is the process by which associative learning occurs. In classical conditioning, organisms learn the association between two stimuli and, in operant conditioning, they learn the association between behavior and a consequence. Classical Conditioning in Humans 6 BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS IN LEARNING Biological Constraints Cultural Constraints 300 What is classical conditioning? It is a nice spring day. A father takes his baby out for a walk. The baby reaches over to touch a pink flower and is stung by the bumblebee sitting on the petals. The next day, the baby’s mother brings home some pink flowers. She removes a flower from the arrangement and takes it over for her baby to smell. The baby cries loudly as soon as she sees the pink flower. The baby’s panic at the sight of the pink flower illustrates the learning process of classical conditioning, in which a neutral stimulus (the flower) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus (the pain of a bee sting) and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response (fear). Pavlov’s Studies In the early 1900s, the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was interested in the way the body digests food. In his experiments, he routinely placed meat powder in a dog’s mouth, causing the dog to salivate. Pavlov noticed that the meat powder was not the only stimulus that caused the dog to salivate. The dog salivated in response to a number of stimuli associated with the food, such as the sight of the food dish, the sight of the individual who brought the food into the room, and the sound of the door closing when the food arrived. Pavlov recognized that the dog’s association of these sights and sounds with the food was an important type of learning, which came to be called classical conditioning. Pavlov (the white-bearded gentleman in the center) is shown demonstrating the nature of classical conditioning to students at the Military Medical Academy in Russia. classical conditioning Learning by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. • ●• Classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus 2 Apply Your Knowledge 1. One common association that people have is called a conditioned taste aversion, which occurs when you eat or drink something and then get sick. A conditioned taste aversion is most likely to occur when the food or drink is something that is relatively unfamiliar. Suppose that you have acquired a conditioned taste aversion to tequila. Identify what the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response are in this example. 2. Positive and negative reinforcement are often difficult concepts to understand. On the following website, examples and a practice exercise may help you figure out the distinction more easily: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm Describe classical conditioning. • becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and comes to elicit a similar response. Pavlov discovered that an organism learns the association between an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a conditioned stimulus (CS). The UCS automatically produces the unconditioned response (UCR). After conditioning (CS-UCS pairing), the CS elicits the conditioned response (CR) by itself. Acquisition in classical conditioning is the initial linking of stimuli and responses, which involves a neutral stimulus being associated with the UCS so that the CS comes to elicit the CR. Two important aspects of acquisition are contiguity and contingency/predictability. Generalization in classical conditioning is the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. Discrimination in classical conditioning is the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others. Extinction in classical conditioning is the weakening of the CR in the absence of the UCS. Spontaneous recovery is the recurrence of a CR after a time delay without further conditioning. • In humans, classical conditioning has been applied to explaining and eliminating fears. Counterconditioning, a classical conditioning procedure for weakening the CR by associating the fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the fear, has been successful in eliminating fears. Classical conditioning also can explain pleasant emotions. Some of the behaviors we you associate health problems and mental disorders, 3. Think of all of the things have with learned in the past several certain aspects drug use and immune sysdays. Write down an including example involving each ofofthe followfunctioning, can involve classical ing types of learning:tem classical conditioning, operant condi-conditioning. Clasconditioning also hasand been applied to consumer tioning, observationalsical learning, latent learning, insight behavior. learning. Which kind of learning do you use most fre- • • ● quently? Which seems to be the least common for you? Are conditioning. 3 Discuss there types of learning you’veoperant done that don’t seem to fit • Operant conditioning is types a formexclude of learning in which the any category? If so, what aspects of those consequences of behavior produce changes in the probathem from these categories? bility of the behavior’s occurrence. B. F. Skinner described the behavior of the organism as operant: The behavior operates on the environment, and the environment in turn operates on the organism. Whereas classical conditioning involves respondent behavior, operant conditioning involves operant behavior. In most instances, operant conditioning is better at explaining voluntary behavior than classical conditioning is. Thorndike’s law of effect states that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. Thorndike’s view that the organism’s behavior is due to a connection between a stimulus and a response is called S-R theory. Skinner believed that the mechanisms of learning are the same for all species. This led him to study lower animals extensively in the hope that the basic mechanisms of learning could be more easily understood in organisms simpler than humans. Like Skinner, contemporary behaviorists study organisms under precisely controlled conditions so that the connection between the operant behavior and the specific consequences can be examined in minute detail. Shaping is the process of rewarding approximations of desired behavior in order to shorten the learning process. Principles of reinforcement include the distinction between positive reinforcement (the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus) and negative reinforcement (the frequency of behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive, or unpleasant, stimulus). Positive reinforcement can be classified as primary reinforcement (using reinforcers that are innately satisfying) and secondary reinforcement (using reinforcers that acquire positive value through experience). Reinforcement can also be continuous (a behavior is reinforced every time) or partial (a behavior is reinforced only a portion of the time). Schedules of reinforcement—fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixedinterval, and variable-interval—are timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced. Operant conditioning involves generalization (giving the same response to similar stimuli), discrimination (responding to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced), and extinction (a decreasing tendency to perform a previously reinforced behavior when reinforcement is stopped). Punishment is a consequence that decreases the likelihood a behavior will occur. Punishment, through which a behavior is weakened, is different from negative reinforcement, through which a behavior is strengthened. In positive punishment, a behavior decreases when it is followed by an unpleasant stimulus. In negative punishment, a behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed from it. Time-out is 301 Reach Your Learning Goals The chapter summary restates the Learning Goals and provides a bulleted review that matches up in a one-to-one fashion with the bulleted review statements in the section reviews. Connections mhhe com/ santrockp7u In-Psych Plus For extra help in mastering the material in this chapter, see the review sections and practice quizzes in the Student Study Guide, the In-Psych Plus CD-ROM, and the Online Learning Center. 276 Chapter 7 Learning Classical conditioning also can be involved in immune system functioning, which is important for producing antibodies to ward off disease and illness, such as AIDS and the flu. Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen (Ader, 2000; Ader & Cohen, 1975, 2000) have conducted a number of studies that reveal that classical conditioning can produce immunosuppression (a decrease in the production of antibodies). The initial discovery of this link between classical conditioning and immunosuppression came as a surprise. In the course of studying Pavlovian conditioning, Ader (1974) was examining how long a conditioned response would last in some laboratory rats. A conditioned stimulus (saccharin solution) was paired with an unconditioned stimulus, a drug called Cytoxan, which induces nausea. Afterward, while giving the rats saccharin-laced water without the accompanying Cytoxan, Ader watched to see how long it would take the rats to forget the association between the two. Unexpectedly, in the second month of the study, the rats developed a disease and began to die off. In analyzing the unforeseen result, Ader checked out the properties of the nausea-inducing drug he had used. He discovered that one of its side effects was immunosuppression. Thus it turned out that the rats had been classically conditioned to associate sweet water not only with nausea but also with the shutdown of the immune system. The sweet water apparently had become a CS for immunosuppression. Researchers have found that conditioned immune responses also may occur in humans (Ader, 2000; Voudouris, Peck, & Coleman, 1985). Connections References to review quizzes, crossword puzzles, and additional resources remind students of the text-specific materials available for content review and enrichment. Review and Sharpen Your Thinking Learning Goals frame the section reviews, which end with an exercise designed to hone critical thinking skills. 303 Applying Classical Conditioning: Consumer Psychology Consumer psychology is the study of how consumers think, feel, reason, and select between different alternatives, such as brands and products. Many contemporary advertisers use classical conditioning in some way (Perner, 2001). Consider this sequence: • Beautiful woman (UCS) → emotional arousal (UCR) in males • Beautiful woman (UCS) paired with an automobile (not yet a CS) many times • Automobile (CS) → emotional arousal (CR) In-Psych Plus Recent research has shown that, if the conditioned stimulus is encountered outside of ads, it doesn’t predict the UCS (Bettman, 2001). Thus classical conditioning may work best for infrequently encountered products and cases in which the UCS is associated with only one brand. Also, classical conditioning usually works best when the CS precedes the UCS in ads. Not all commercials involve classical conditioning. Some just give information about the product. The next time you watch TV, observe which ads rely on classical conditioning. To review the elements of classical conditioning and its applications to human learning, go to the interactivity “Classical Conditioning 2.” Review and Sharpen Your Thinking 2 Describe classical conditioning. • • Summarize the classical conditioning process. Include in your description the following terms: unconditioned stimulus (UCS), conditioned stimulus (CS), unconditioned response (UCR), and conditioned response (CR), as well as acquisition, generalization, discrimination, and extinction/spontaneous recovery. Discuss the role of classical conditioning in human phobias and specify other types of behavior that involve classical conditioning. Think about an attachment that you or someone you know has for a certain object or environment. Explain how classical conditioning might account for the pleasant association. spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 3:35 PM Page v impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Make Connections and Succeed! Supplementary print and media resources include a variety of review and assessment tools that carry through the text's emphasis on key ideas, reinforcing learning and enhancing student success. Online Learning Center www.mhhe.com/Santrockp7u Student Resources Chapter outlines and practice quizzes are keyed to the text Learning Goals. The student section of the website also contains flashcards, interactive review exercises, and access, via PowerWeb, to current news about psychology, research tools, and many other valuable study tools. Instructor Resources Teaching resources on this passwordprotected site include the Instructor's Course Planner, Image Bank, PowerPoint files, and Web links to additional resources. Student Study Guide A guided review of the chapter is organized by text section and Learning Goals, as are the three practice tests provided for each chapter. As in the text, Connections direct students to other text-correlated resources for additional help in mastering key ideas and concepts. Instructor’s Course Planner The same Learning Goals that reinforce the key ideas in the text and Study Guide frame the teaching suggestions in this valuable manual. Chapter overviews, lecture/discussion suggestions, and goal reinforcement activities are a few of the resources provided in the Instructor's Course Planner. New! In-Psych Plus CD-ROM In-Psych Plus features video clips and interactivities that are referenced within the main text. The video clips, chosen for interest and relevance, expand on significant concepts and theories discussed in the text and are accompanied by summaries and quizzes. The CD-ROMs also include practice self-tests with feedback and a learning styles assessment, as well as other valuable features. spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page vi impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page vii impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: With special appreciation to my wife, Mary Jo spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page viii impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: About the Author J O H N W. S A N T R O C K received his Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota in 1973. He taught at the University of Charleston and the University of Georgia before joining the psychology department at the University of Texas at Dallas. He has been a member of the editorial board of Developmental Psychology. His research on father custody is widely cited and used in expert witness testimony to promote flexibility and alternative considerations in custody disputes. John has also authored these exceptional McGraw-Hill texts: Child Development, tenth edition, Life-Span Development, ninth edition, Children, eighth edition, Adolescence, tenth edition, and Educational Psychology, second edition. spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page ix impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Brief Contents C HAPTE R 1 What Is Psychology? C HAPTE R 2 Psychology’s Scientific Methods C HAPTE R 3 Biological Foundations of Behavior CHAPTER 4 Human Development CHAPTER 5 Sensation and Perception C HAPTE R 6 States of Consciousness CHAPTER 7 Learning 266 CHAPTER 8 Memory 304 CHAPTER 9 Thinking and Language C HAPTE R 10 Intelligence CHAPTER 11 Motivation and Emotion CHAPTER 12 Personality CHAPTER 13 Psychological Disorders CHAPTER 14 Therapies CHAPTER 15 Stress, Coping, and Health CHAPTER 16 Social Psychology 2 38 76 116 174 226 348 386 422 474 516 560 600 644 ix spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page x impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xi impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Contents Preface xvii C H A P T E R 1 What Is Psychology? 2 Exploring Psychology 4 Studying the Mind and Behavior 5 A Quest for Answers to Ancient Questions 6 Early Scientific Approaches to Psychology 8 Psychology’s Careers and Areas of Specialization 18 Careers in Psychology 19 Areas of Specialization in Psychology 20 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Is Psychology in Your Future? 25 Contemporary Approaches to Psychology 9 The Behavioral Approach 10 The Psychodynamic Approach 11 The Cognitive Approach 12 The Behavioral Neuroscience Approach 12 The Evolutionary Psychology Approach 13 The Sociocultural Approach 15 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Can Humans Really Be Altruistic? 16 How to Get the Most Out of Psychology 26 Good Study Habits 26 Thinking Critically 29 The Book’s Learning Tools 32 Reach Your Learning Goals 34 Key Terms 36 Apply Your Knowledge 36 Connections 36 A Positive Approach to Psychology 17 The Humanistic Movement 17 The Positive Psychology Movement 17 C H A P T E R 2 Psychology’s Scientific Methods Exploring Psychology as a Science 40 A Scientific Approach 40 Collaboration 42 The Scientific Method 42 Types of Research 47 Descriptive Research 47 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Writing Might Improve Your Health 48 Correlational Research 53 Experimental Research 56 38 Facing Up to Research Challenges 62 Conducting Ethical Research 63 Minimizing Bias 65 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Is Psychology Value-Free? 66 Being a Wise Consumer of Information About Psychology 68 Reach Your Learning Goals 72 Key Terms 74 Apply Your Knowledge 74 Connections 74 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 59 Descriptive Statistics 59 Inferential Statistics 61 xi spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xii impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: xii Contents C H A P T E R 3 Biological Foundations of Behavior 76 The Nervous System 78 Characteristics 79 Pathways in the Nervous System 80 Divisions of the Nervous System 80 The Endocrine System 102 Neurons 82 Specialized Cell Structure 82 The Neural Impulse 83 Synapses and Neurotransmitters 85 Neural Networks 88 Genetic and Evolutionary Blueprints of Behavior 105 Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA 106 The Study of Genetics 106 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: The Human Genome Project and Your Genetic Future 107 Genetics and Evolution 110 Reach Your Learning Goals 112 Key Terms 114 Apply Your Knowledge 115 Connections 115 Structures of the Brain and Their Functions 89 How the Brain and Nervous System Are Studied 89 Levels of Organization in the Brain 91 The Cerebral Cortex 95 The Cerebral Hemispheres and Split-Brain Research 98 Integration of Function in the Brain 100 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Are There “His” and “Her” Brains? 101 C H A P T E R 4 Human Development Exploring Human Development 119 What Is Development? 119 Do Early Experiences Rule Us for Life? 120 How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development? 121 Child Development 123 Prenatal Development 123 Physical Development in Childhood 125 Cognitive Development in Childhood 128 Socioemotional Development in Childhood 134 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Parents Bring Up Their Children, Don’t They? 141 Positive Psychology and Children’s Development 148 Adolescence 149 Positive Psychology and Adolescents 150 C H A P T E R 5 Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair 104 The Brain’s Plasticity and Capacity for Repair 104 Brain Tissue Implants 104 116 Physical Development in Adolescence 151 Cognitive Development in Adolescence 152 Socioemotional Development in Adolescence 153 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Developing a Positive Identity 155 At-Risk Youth 155 Adult Development and Aging 156 Physical Development in Adulthood 156 Cognitive Development in Adulthood 161 Socioemotional Development in Adulthood 164 Positive Psychology and Aging 169 Reach Your Learning Goals 170 Key Terms 172 Apply Your Knowledge 173 Connections 173 Sensation and Perception How We Sense and Perceive the World 176 Detecting, Processing, and Interpreting Experiences 176 Sensory Receptors and the Brain 178 Thresholds 180 Signal Detection Theory 183 Perceiving Sensory Stimuli 184 Sensory Adaptation 186 The Visual System 187 The Visual Stimulus and the Eye 187 Visual Processing in the Brain 191 Color Vision 194 Perceiving Shape, Depth, Motion, and Constancy 196 Illusions 202 The Auditory System 204 The Nature of Sound and How We Experience It 204 Structures and Functions of the Ear 205 174 Theories of Hearing 207 Auditory Processing in the Brain 208 Localizing Sound 208 Noise Pollution 209 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Love Your Ears 210 Other Senses 211 The Skin Senses 212 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Should We Believe the Claims of Psychics? 213 The Chemical Senses 216 The Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses 219 Perception and Human Factors Psychology 220 Reach Your Learning Goals 222 Key Terms 225 Apply Your Knowledge 225 Connections 225 spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xiii impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Contents C H A P T E R 6 States of Consciousness The Nature of Consciousness 228 Levels of Awareness 229 Consciousness and the Brain 232 xiii 226 Applications of Hypnosis 248 Sleep and Dreams 232 Biological Rhythms and Sleep 232 Why Do We Need Sleep? 235 Sleep Stages 238 Sleep and Disease 241 Sleep Disorders 241 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Do You Get Enough Sleep? 242 Dreams 243 Psychoactive Drugs 249 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Is Hypnosis a Window to Forgotten Events? 250 Uses of Psychoactive Drugs 251 Types of Psychoactive Drugs 252 Addiction 261 Reach Your Learning Goals 262 Key Terms 264 Apply Your Knowledge 264 Connections 265 Hypnosis 246 The Nature of Hypnosis 247 Explaining Hypnosis 248 C H A P T E R 7 Learning 266 Types of Learning 268 Observational Learning 291 Classical Conditioning 270 Pavlov’s Studies 270 Classical Conditioning in Humans 274 Cognitive Factors in Learning 292 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Models and Mentors in My Life 293 Purposive Behavior 293 Insight Learning 295 Operant Conditioning 277 Definition of Operant Conditioning 277 Thorndike’s Law of Effect 277 Skinner’s Approach to Operant Conditioning 278 Shaping 279 Principles of Reinforcement 280 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Will Sparing the Rod Spoil the Child? 287 Applications of Operant Conditioning 288 C H A P T E R 8 Memory The Nature of Memory 306 Memory Encoding 308 Attention 308 Levels of Processing 308 Elaboration 309 Imagery 310 Memory Storage 311 Sensory Memory 312 Short-Term Memory 313 Long-Term Memory 315 Memory Retrieval 326 Serial Position Effect 327 Retrieval Cues and the Retrieval Task 327 Retrieval of Autobiographical Memories 330 Retrieval of Emotional Memories 330 Biological and Cultural Factors in Learning 296 Biological Constraints 296 Cultural Constraints 298 Reach Your Learning Goals 300 Key Terms 302 Apply Your Knowledge 303 Connections 303 304 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Recovered Memories or False Memories? 332 Eyewitness Testimony 333 Forgetting 336 Encoding Failure 336 Retrieval Failure 337 Memory and Study Strategies 339 Encoding Strategies 340 Storage Strategies 342 Retrieval Strategies 342 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Memory and Study Strategies 343 Reach Your Learning Goals 344 Key Terms 346 Apply Your Knowledge 347 Connections 347 spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xiv impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: xiv Contents C H A P T E R 9 Thinking and Language The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology 351 Language and Thought 368 The Structure of Language 368 The Link Between Language and Cognition 369 Animal Language 371 Concept Formation 353 Functions of Concepts 353 Structure of Concepts 355 Problem Solving 356 Steps in Problem Solving 356 Obstacles to Solving Problems 358 Expertise 360 Critical Thinking, Reasoning, and Decision Making 361 Critical Thinking 362 Reasoning 363 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Sharpening the Saw 364 Decision Making 365 CHAPTER 10 Intelligence Intelligence Testing 389 Approaches to Testing 389 Criteria of a Good Test of Intelligence 393 Cultural Bias in Testing 395 The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests 396 Neuroscience and Intelligence 397 Head and Brain Size 398 Information Processing Speed 398 Electrical Activity in the Brain 398 Energy Consumption in the Brain 399 Theories of Multiple Intelligences 399 Factor Analysis, Two-Factor Theory, and Multiple-Factor Theory 400 Gardner’s Theory of Eight Intelligences 400 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory 402 Emotional Intelligence 403 11 Language Acquisition and Development 373 Biological Influences 373 Environmental Influences 374 Early Development of Language 375 Language and Education 378 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Is Bilingual Education a Good Thing? 379 Reach Your Learning Goals 382 Key Terms 384 Apply Your Knowledge 385 Connections 385 386 The Nature of Intelligence 388 C HAPTE R Evaluating the Multiple-Intelligences Approach 403 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Do People Have a General Intelligence? 404 The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity 405 Mental Retardation 405 Giftedness 406 Creativity 408 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: How Creative Is Your Thinking? 411 The Influence of Heredity and Environment 412 Genetic Influences 412 Environmental Influences 413 Group Influences 415 Reach Your Learning Goals 418 Key Terms 421 Apply Your Knowledge 421 Connections 421 Motivation and Emotion Approaches to Motivation 425 The Evolutionary Approach 425 Drive Reduction Theory 425 Optimum Arousal Theory 426 The Cognitive Approach 427 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Does Extrinsic Motivation Undermine Intrinsic Motivation? 429 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs 430 Issues in Motivation 431 Hunger 431 The Biology of Hunger 431 Obesity and Eating Behavior 434 348 422 Dieting 436 Eating Disorders 437 Sexuality 438 The Biology of Sex 439 Cognitive and Sensory/Perceptual Factors 440 Cultural Factors 441 Psychosexual Dysfunctions 442 Sexual Behavior and Orientation 443 Social Cognitive Motives 447 Achievement 447 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: How Goal-Directed Are You? 449 spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xv impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Contents Affiliation 453 Well-Being 454 Sociocultural Factors 462 Classifying Emotions 465 Reach Your Learning Goals 470 Key Terms 473 Apply Your Knowledge 473 Connections 473 Emotion 455 The Biology of Emotion 456 Cognitive Factors 460 Behavioral Factors 462 CHAPTER 12 Personality 474 Theories of Personality 477 The Big Five Personality Factors 498 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Are You Extraverted or Introverted? 498 Trait-Situation Interaction 499 Evaluating Trait Perspectives 500 Psychodynamic Perspectives 478 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 478 Psychodynamic Dissenters and Revisionists 482 Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspectives 484 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives 485 Skinner’s Behaviorism 486 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 486 Evaluating Behavioral and Social Cognitive Perspectives 490 Humanistic Perspectives 490 Rogers’ Approach 491 Maslow’s Approach 492 Self-Esteem 493 Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives 495 Personality Assessment 501 Projective Tests 501 Self-Report Tests 504 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Who Is Projecting What? 505 Behavioral and Cognitive Assessment 508 Assessment in the Selection of Employees 510 Reach Your Learning Goals 512 Key Terms 515 Apply Your Knowledge 515 Connections 515 Trait Perspectives 496 Trait Theories 496 CHAPTER 13 Psychological Disorders Understanding Psychological Disorders 518 Defining Abnormal Behavior 518 Theoretical Approaches to Psychological Disorders 520 Classifying Abnormal Behavior 522 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Are Psychological Disorders a Myth? 526 Anxiety Disorders 527 Generalized Anxiety Disorder 527 Panic Disorder 528 Phobic Disorders 529 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 530 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 532 Mood Disorders 537 Depressive Disorders 537 14 Therapies 516 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Are You Depressed? 539 Bipolar Disorder 539 Causes of Mood Disorders 540 Suicide 546 Schizophrenia 548 Types of Schizophrenia 549 Causes of Schizophrenia 550 Personality Disorders 553 Odd/Eccentric Cluster 553 Dramatic/Emotionally Problematic Cluster 554 Chronic-Fearfulness/Avoidant Cluster 555 Reach Your Learning Goals 556 Key Terms 558 Apply Your Knowledge 559 Connections 559 Dissociative Disorders 535 Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue 535 Dissociative Identity Disorder 535 CHAPTER xv 560 Biological Therapies 562 Drug Therapy 563 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Should Depression Be Treated with Drugs? 565 Electroconvulsive Therapy 566 Psychosurgery 568 Psychotherapies 568 Psychodynamic Therapies 569 spy7fmpgi_xxv 4/16/04 9:23 PM Page xvi xvi Contents Humanistic Therapies 572 Behavior Therapies 574 Cognitive Therapies 578 Sociocultural Approaches and Issues in Treatment 584 Group Therapy 584 Family and Couples Therapy 585 Self-Help Support Groups 586 Community Mental Health 587 Cultural Perspectives 588 The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy 589 Research on the Effectiveness of Psychotherapy 589 CHAPTER 15 Stress, Coping, and Health Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine 603 Stress and Its Sources 604 Personality Factors 604 Environmental Factors 606 Sociocultural Factors 610 Stress Responses 612 General Adaptation Syndrome 612 Fight or Flight, Tend and Befriend 614 Cognitive Appraisal 615 Stress and Illness 616 Stress and the Immune System 616 Stress and Cardiovascular Disease 618 Stress and Cancer 618 Positive Emotions, Illness, and Health 619 Coping Strategies 620 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Can Positive Thinking Make You Healthy? 621 CHAPTER 16 Social Psychology Social Thinking 646 Attribution 647 Social Perception 649 Attitudes 653 Social Influence 658 Conformity and Obedience 658 Group Influence 662 Leadership 666 Intergroup Relations 668 Group Identity: Us Versus Them 668 Prejudice 670 Ways to Improve Interethnic Relations 672 Social Interaction 675 Aggression 675 CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: Does Pornography Lead to Violence Against Women? 681 Altruism 682 Relationships 686 Attraction 686 Common Themes in Psychotherapy 591 Therapy Integrations 591 Funding and Finding Therapy 592 Mental Health Professionals 593 Guidelines for Seeking Professional Help 594 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Evaluating Whether You Need a Therapist 595 Reach Your Learning Goals 596 Key Terms 599 Apply Your Knowledge 599 Connections 599 600 Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping 622 Optimism and Positive Thinking 622 Social Support 625 Assertive Behavior 626 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: Dealing with Conflict 627 Religion 627 Stress Management Programs 629 Healthful Living 631 Exercising Regularly 631 Eating Healthily 634 Quitting Smoking 635 Making Sound Sexual Decisions 636 Reach Your Learning Goals 640 Key Terms 643 Apply Your Knowledge 643 Connections 643 644 Love 688 Relationships and Gender 689 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE: What Is Your Love Like? 690 Loneliness 691 Reach Your Learning Goals 694 Key Terms 697 Apply Your Knowledge 697 Connections 697 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Credits C-1 Name Index I-1 Subject Index I-13 spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xvii impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Preface Since I started teaching psychology in 1967, my motivation and love for introducing students to this relevant science have not wavered. This commitment to relevance and to science not only has been a foundation of my teaching, but it is also the heart of this book. In this edition, I’ve kept the theme of psychology as a relevant science and, in line with current trends in the discipline, increased the emphasis on the biological aspects of psychology and on the positive changes psychology can help us achieve in our lives. These themes, together with a stronger focus on the key ideas in psychology, are the main features of this update of Psychology. New! Media Integration References to video clips and interactivities, all drawn from various McGraw-Hill media resources and chosen for their interest and relevancy to the main content, appear within the main text. The In-Psych Plus CD-ROM marginal icon provides an additional, visual reference to the media. Each video and interactivity that is mentioned in the text appears on the In-Psych Plus CD-ROM, which is packaged free with the text. In addition, pedagogy, activities, test questions, and other features have been created to complement these video clips and reinforce students’ grasp of the key concepts they illustrate. These materials are found on the In-Psych Plus CD-ROM, in the Study Guide, in the Instructor’s Course Planner, and in the Test Item Files. Psychology: The Relevant Science Many students come into the introductory psychology class asking why they should study psychology when their major is physics or computer science or French. To a psychologist, the answer is obvious: It will help you to understand yourself and others better. Psychology is relevant to almost every aspect of daily life. What psychologists have learned from memory research, for example, can be used to study more effectively, no matter what the subject is. Principles of learning can be applied to change undesirable behavior in children. Knowledge of sensation and perception can be used to more effectively design computers. Research on stress, coping, and health can help people to live fuller, happier lives. Writing the preface for Psychology, I am convinced that the science of psychology is more relevant today than ever. After September 11, 2001, psychologists and psychiatrists were called on to counsel not only people whose lives were directly affected by the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon but also students, teachers, parents, and others who were struggling to understand, as we were, what could trigger such hostility and violence toward Americans. Psychology teaches us about the roots of aggression and the influence of groups on individual behavior. It also suggests strategies for handling stress, whatever the source. Nothing is more relevant to contemporary life. In addition to relevance, this edition continues to stress the scientific nature of the discipline. A hallmark of the book has always been its focus on research, the foundation of all sciences. Here the latest research findings are discussed, along with the classic studies that established psychology as an objective science. There are more than 900 citations from the twenty-first century, including many from 2002 through 2004. Also, numerous new graphs show students how scientific data can be presented visually. Neuroscience and Biological Influences on Behavior The growing emphasis on neuroscience and genetics as the means to understand the effects of biology on behavior is also reflected in this edition. Evolutionary psychology, another area of increasing interest, receives increased attention as well. Knowing that students often have difficulty understanding why it is important to learn biology in a course on psychology, I’ve taken particular care to present these topics in a psychological context and to underscore the complex relationship between biology, environment, and behavior wherever appropriate. Neuroscientist Lawrence Cauller provided outstanding guidance for incorporating stronger biological neuroscience content in this edition. Positive Psychology Currently, there is a movement in psychology to focus attention on the positive contributions psychology can make to everyday life. Proponents of positive psychology, notably Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, share the belief that for much of xvii spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xviii impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: xviii Preface the twentieth century the discipline concentrated on the negative aspects of life and that it’s time to emphasize the positive side of psychology. Positive psychology offers all of us the opportunity to take control of our lives and find balance. For this edition, I have revised many of the chapteropening vignettes and examples in the text to highlight positive outcomes and, with Csikszentmihalyi’s expert guidance, have incorporated material on positive psychology throughout the book. Focus on Key Ideas The most significant instructional challenge facing introductory psychology teachers today is ensuring that students master the core content of the course. For students overwhelmed by information from lectures, textbooks, the Internet, and other media, it is more difficult than ever to find the main ideas in their courses. To address these challenges and help students achieve the best possible outcome, I have developed a learning system for this edition that emphasizes basic concepts and ideas, encourages review, and promotes critical thinking. This system frames the presentation in the text and the supplements, providing a truly integrated package that reinforces learning and gives instructors the tools they need to assess students’ grasp of core concepts and ideas. The learning system has several components, all centered on three to six key ideas per chapter. These ideas are encapsulated in learning goals, which correspond with the chapter’s main headings, as shown at the opening of each chapter. The learning goals reappear at several places in the chapter: as a question at the beginning of a new topic, in a guided review at the end of the section, and again in a summary at the end of the chapter. Content maps of the section and subsection headings accompany the learning goal question at the beginning of each major section. Together with a complete chapter map at the end of the chapter, the section maps provide a visual guide to the core concepts that support the learning goals. To encourage students to apply what they’ve learned, and increase the likelihood that they will remember the material, the learning system includes critical thinking questions keyed to the learning goals in the “Review and Sharpen Your Thinking” sections. Additionally, “What do you think?” exercises accompany each of the new Critical Controversy boxes and at least three critical thinking exercises follow the review section at the end of each chapter in a section titled“Apply Your Knowledge.” For students who have access to the Web, the end-of-chapter exercises include at least one Web-based activity. Incorporating the learning goals and maps in the student supplements reinforces the lessons from the text and eliminates the confusion many students have about how to use the supplements to boost their performance in the course. Changes in Coverage Instructors who have used previous editions of this text will find much in the seventh edition that’s different and much that hasn’t changed. In addition to increased emphasis on neuroscience, genetics, evolutionary psychology, and positive psychology, the seventh edition contains increased coverage of diversity, controversies, and careers in psychology. This material is presented where appropriate throughout the book. The table of contents and chapter sequence remain the same as in the sixth edition, except that human development now falls closer to the beginning of the book (chapter 4). With this change, instructors can cover a topic of high student interest early in the course, while the principles of genetics (chapter 3) are still fresh in students’ minds, and later incorporate the material in their discussions of learning, cognition, and language. Although the number of chapters and their topics are unchanged, the substance and presentation in each chapter have been revised thoroughly. Some of the detail that is less relevant today than it once was has been pruned to make room for cutting-edge research and some of the presentation was reconceptualized to focus on the key ideas reflected in the learning goals. Although there isn’t enough space here to list all of the changes in this edition, here are the highlights: CHAPTER 1 What Is Psychology? • Expanded, updated coverage of the evolutionary psychology approach and a new section on positive approaches to psychology, including the humanistic movement and the positive psychology movement • Expanded treatment of psychology’s careers, including descriptions of the work that different types of psychologists do • New section added on how to get the most out of psychology, focusing on study habits and skills CHAPTER 2 Psychology’s Scientific Methods • New opening discussion of attitudes central to the scientific approach and on collaboration in science • Introduction of James Pennebaker’s research as an extended example of the scientific method and positive psychology • Reorganized section on research methods focusing on descriptive, correlational, and experimental research and including new coverage of positive and negative correlations and their interpretation, as well as recent research on bias and the placebo effect • New introduction to data analysis and interpretation, with explanation of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xix impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Preface CHAPTER 3 Biological Foundations of Behavior • Reorganized chapter now starts with a discussion of the characteristics of the nervous system, focusing on complexity, integration, adaptability, and electrochemical transmission • Revised presentation of neuron structure and function, including new material on drugs, neurotransmitters, and neural networks • Updated coverage of functioning in the left and right hemispheres of the brain and many new drawings of the brain • Separate section on the endocrine system • Expanded and updated discussion of neurogenesis • New section on genetics and evolution CHAPTER 4 Human Development • Nature and nurture section now includes a discussion of genotype and phenotype, as well as a subsection on optimal experiences • Added coverage on the brain and how it changes from infancy to adulthood • Revised discussion of socioemotional development in childhood includes the effects of divorce, positive parenting, ethnic and cultural differences, and gender development • New sections on positive psychology and development in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood • Expanded discussion of biological aspects of aging, including new figures on telomeres and aging and updated information on Alzheimer’s disease • Updated coverage of cognitive changes and aging, including new figures on longitudinal changes in six intellectual abilities and on the relation of age to reaction time • Discussion of John Gottman’s work on what makes a successful marriage and of Laura Carstensen’s research on emotion, social networks, and aging, including new figures on aging and remembering emotional material CHAPTER 5 Sensation and Perception • Completely revised discussion of how we sense and perceive the world now includes transduction, bottomup and top-down processing, new examples of signal detection theory, and selective attention • New coverage on parallel processing in the visual cortex and on the process of binding in neural pathways and how it functions in visual perception • Cochlear implants and sound localization added to discussion of the auditory system • Discussion of parallel processing in touch • Expanded coverage of pain, including new discussion of the “fast” and “slow” pain pathways, plus pain control and treatment xix • New section on human factors and perception, including recent research of Susan Lederman and Roberta Klatsky and of Robert McCann at NASA CHAPTER 6 States of Consciousness • Neuroscience coverage incorporated in sections on consciousness, stages of sleep, and psychoactive drugs • Greater coverage of circadian rhythms, including the suprachiasmatic nucleus • New coverage of the role of sleep in the storage and maintenance of long-term memory • Addition of recent research on sleep deprivation in adolescents and older adults • New section on sleep and disease • Inclusion of new research on dream content across cultures • Expanded and updated material on the activationsynthesis theory of dreaming • Most recent data on trends in adolescent drug use (Johnston, O’Malley, & Bachman, 2001) CHAPTER 7 Learning • Expanded and clarified discussion of classical conditioning, including new examples, such as fear of the dentist and how it varies across cultures; a new section on the role of classical conditioning in health problems; and applications to consumer psychology • Expanded, improved, easier-to-understand examples of positive and negative reinforcement • Expanded and easier-to-understand examples in comparing punishment and negative reinforcement • Expanded applications of operant conditioning, including the use of shaping and behavior modification in the classroom CHAPTER 8 Memory • Revised coverage of memory encoding includes the effects of divided attention • New discussion of recent research on how verbal working memory can be impaired by negative emotion, and on how writing about negative emotional events can improve working memory • Revised coverage of memory storage includes new sections on prospective memory and on connectionist networks and memory, plus a discussion of long-term potentiation • Revised discussion of forgetting includes Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve, decay and transience, and a new section on motivated forgetting • Complete reorganization of memory and study strategy section to correspond to organization of the section on memory spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xx impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: xx Preface CHAPTER 9 Thinking and Language • Expanded coverage of concepts, including new sections on the functions and structures of concepts • New section on expertise, including four ways that experts solve problems differently than novices do • Earlier discussion of the link between cognition and language • Revised section on language acquisition and development includes material on the level of maternal speech to infants and its effects on vocabulary development in infants, a new figure on language milestones, a discussion of how young children find the boundaries between words, and recent research on how long it takes to become competent at a second language CHAPTER 10 Intelligence • Intelligence testing now cohesively discussed in opening section • New section on neuroscience and intelligence with subsections on head and brain size, information processing speed, electrical activity in the brain, and energy consumption in the brain • Added sections on theories of multiple and emotional intelligence, including a comparison of Gardner’s, Sternberg’s, and Mayer/Salovy theories of intelligence • New section on the influence of heredity and environment includes the research of Craig Ramey and colleagues, as well as gender and cultural comparisons CHAPTER 11 Motivation and Emotion • Section on motivation theory now includes the evolutionary approach to motivation, arousal and sensation seeking, expanded coverage of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and a discussion of the importance of selfgenerated goals • Hunger section includes expanded and updated discussion of blood chemistry and the role of leptin in obesity, new material on neurotransmitters in the section on brain processes and hunger, new data on obesity in the United States, and more coverage of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa • Social cognitive motivation section now includes a cross-cultural comparison of math achievement in the United States, Japan, and Taiwan; achievement applications in the workplace and in sports; and discussions of the motivation for affiliation and well-being • Section on emotion includes a new discussion of the roles of neural circuits and neurotransmitters, including Joseph LeDoux’s concept of direct and indirect pathways for fear in the brain, and of the links between emotion and the brain’s hemispheres • New focus on positive emotions, including Barbara Frederickson’s research on how they might enhance people’s well-being and David Buss’ ideas on the evolved mechanisms that can produce a deep sense of happiness CHAPTER 12 Personality • Issues in the study of personality now at beginning of chapter • Social cognitive theory section revised to include discussions of personal control, locus of control, and optimism • New figure showing the link between self-efficacy and smoking cessation • New discussion of changes in self-esteem across the life span, including new figure based on 2002 research study • Section on personality assessment expanded to include discussion of the big five factors, locus of control, and the selection of employees CHAPTER 13 Psychological Disorders • The multiaxial system in the DSM-IV covered in greater depth, including a new figure on the major categories of psychological disorders, organized according to Axis I and Axis II • Introduction of concept of etiology, new discussion of the etiology of anxiety disorders, and expanded discussion of post-traumatic stress disorder • Added material on the hidden observer concept applied to dissociative disorders • Updated discussion of mood disorders, including new coverage on neurobiological abnormalities, new material on the depressive realism view of depression, and several new figures • New section on suicide, including coverage of suicide rates across cultures • Expanded discussion of schizophrenia, including recent information about heredity and schizophrenia, as well as neurobiological factors and case studies CHAPTER 14 Therapies • Substantially reorganized chapter with biological therapies now covered in the first section • Updated discussion and figures on the effects of drug therapies, including Prozac and Risperdal • New sections on cognitive behavior therapy and using cognitive therapy to treat psychological disorders • New section on sociocultural approaches and issues, including new coverage of the community mental health movement spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xxi impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Preface CHAPTER 15 Stress, Coping, and Health • Reorganization of stress discussion to focus on sources and responses • New section on coping strategies with new coverage of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping, optimism, and positive thinking and the role of religion in helping people cope with stress • Section on healthful living updated with new coverage of the role of the antidepressant Zyban in helping people quit smoking, as well as the effective rates of other approaches, such as nicotine patches CHAPTER 16 Social Psychology • Revised social influence section with expanded discussion of symptoms of groupthink and strategies for avoiding groupthink, as well as a discussion of leadership styles in women and men • Expanded, updated discussion of prejudice focusing on the reasons people develop prejudice • Updated section on social interaction, including discussion of neurotransmitters and aggression, recent information on children’s TV viewing habits and possible links to aggression, and updated coverage of trends in altruism among U.S. college students • In relationships section, addition of recent research on gender and relationships; new research on loneliness, stress, and health; and new discussion of loneliness and technology Print and Media Supplements For the Student the text: chapter overview, learning objectives, guided review (for each section), three practice tests, essay questions, crossword puzzle, learning goal checklist, and diagram labeling exercises. Psych Online This supplement is designed to help students get the most out of the Internet for psychology research and provides general resource locations. Psychology sites are grouped by topic with a brief explanation of each site. Included in this booklet are a number of general resource sites for students seeking help. Online Learning Center for Students The official website for the text contains chapter outlines, practice quizzes that can be e-mailed to the professor, key term flashcards, interactive exercises, Internet activities, Web links to relevant psychology sites, drag-and-drop labeling exercises, Internet primer, career appendix, and a statistics primer. www.mhhe.com/Santrockp7u. For the Instructor Instructor’s Course Planner Susan Weldon, Eastern Michigan University This manual provides many useful tools to enhance your teaching. In each chapter, you will find teaching objectives, chapter overviews, key terms, Teaching the Chapter, lecture/discussion suggestions, goal reinforcement classroom activities, Experiencing Psychology boxed feature, critical thinking questions, video/media suggestions, and references and sources of bibliographical information. PowerWeb This unique online tool provides students Test Item Files with current articles, curriculum-based materials, weekly updates with assessment, informative and timely world news, Web links, research tools, study tools, and interactive exercises. A PowerWeb access card is packaged FREE with each new copy of the text. Test Item File I: Ron Mulson, Hudson Valley Community College New! In-Psych Plus Student CD-ROM In-Psych Plus sets Test Item File III: Susan Weldon, Eastern Michigan University a new standard for introductory psychology multimedia. In-Psych Plus is organized according to the text chapter outlines and features video clips, audio clips, and interactive exercises chosen to illustrate especially difficult core concepts in introductory psychology. In-Psych Plus also includes a pre-test, follow-up assignments, Web resources, chapter quizzes, a student research guide, and an interactive timeline that puts events, key figures, and research in historical perspective. Study Guide Ruth Hallongren, Triton College Designed to reinforce the key ideas in the text, the study guide contains the following features for each chapter of xxi Test Item File II: Susan E. Swithers, Purdue University Three Test Item Files provide you with the widest variety of questions to last the life of this edition. The questions in the Test Item Files are also available on Brownstone, a powerful but accessible test-generating program that McGraw-Hill offers on a hybrid CD-ROM. With Brownstone, you can easily select questions and print tests and answer keys. You can also customize questions, headings, and instructions; add or import your own questions; and print tests in a choice of printer-supported fonts. PowerPoint Lectures Available on the Internet, these presentations cover the key points of each chapter and include charts and graphs from the text. Helpful lecture spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xxii impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: xxii Preface guidelines are provided in the Notes section for each slide. These presentations can be used as they are or can be modified to meet your needs. Overhead Transparencies More than 70 key images from the text are available upon adoption. A separate package, Introductory Psychology Transparency Set, provides more than 100 additional images illustrating key concepts in general psychology. Online Learning Center for Instructors The passwordprotected instructor side of the text website contains the Instructor’s Manual, a sample chapter from the text, PowerPoint Presentations, Web links, and other teaching resources. www.mhhe.com/Santrockp74u PageOutTM Build your own course website in less than an hour. You don’t have to be a computer whiz to create a website, especially with an exclusive McGraw-Hill product called PageOut. It requires no prior knowledge of HTML, no long hours of coding, and no design skills on your part. With PageOut, even the most inexperienced computer user can quickly and easily create a professional-looking course website. Simply fill in templates with your information and with content provided by McGraw-Hill, choose a design, and you’ve got a website specifically designed for your course. Best of all, it’s FREE! Visit us at www.pageout.net to find out more. Linda E. Flickinger, St. Clair County Community College Edwin E. Gantt, Brigham Young University Debra L. Hollister, Valencia Community College Richard Kandus, Mt. San Jacinto College Maria LeBaron, Randolph Community College Brennis Lucero-Wagoner, California State University– Northridge Wendy Mills, San Jacinto College North Doug Peterson, University of South Dakota James S. Previte, Victor Valley College Steven V. Rouse, Pepperdine University John Ruys, University of California–Davis H.R. Schiffman, Rutgers University Susan Spencer, Eastern Oklahoma State College Katharine Webb, Maria College Fred Whitford, Montana State University Expert Reviewers of the Updated Seventh Edition In addition, I would like to thank the following expert reviewers, who provided in-depth comments in the areas of neuroscience and cognitive psychology: James C. Bartlett, University of Texas at Dallas Mike Kilgard, University of Texas at Dallas Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM This comprehensive In-Depth Reviewers of the Seventh Edition CD-ROM includes the contents of the Instructor’s Course Planner; Test Item Files in computerized, Word, and Rich Text versions; an image gallery; and PowerPoint slides. The Presentation Manager provides an easy-to-use interface for the design and delivery of multimedia classroom presentations. I benefited considerably from the advice and analysis provided by a number of in-depth reviewers of the book’s seventh edition. The following individuals provided this input: Acknowledgments Many people guided this update of Psychology. The McGrawHill team of Steve DeBow, president; Thalia Dorwick, editor in chief; Stephen Rutter, publisher; Melissa Caughlin, marketing manager; Judith Kromm, director of development; and Sienne Patch, developmental editor, all played key roles and spent long hours in the planning, revision, and publication process for this update. Reviewers of the Updated Seventh Edition The following psychologists and instructors provided comments and suggestions, which helped me to improve and update this text: Tamara L. Brown, University of Kentucky Peter B. Crabb, Pennsylvania State University–Abington William Fabricius, Arizona State University Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Claremont Graduate University (positive psychology) Larry Cauller, University of Texas at Dallas (neuroscience) Susan Swithers, Purdue University (chapters 3 and 5 and author of end-of-chapter exercises) John Mitterer, Brock University (author of many of the Critical Controversy boxes) Meredith Stanford-Pollack, University of Massachusetts at Lowell (diversity) Saera Khan, Western Washington University (illustrations) Reviewers of the Seventh Edition The following psychologists also helped to make the seventh edition a much better text through their thoughtful reviews: Richard Anderson, Bowling Green State University Jim Backlund, Kirtland Community College Stella B. Baldwin, Wake Technical Community College Pearl Berman, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Joy L. Berrenberg, University of Colorado at Denver spy7fmpgi_xxv.qxd 3/26/04 11:29 AM Page xxiii impos03 303:mhspy7u:spy7fm:layouts: Preface Frederick M. Brown, Penn State University Richard Cavasina, California University of Pennsylvania George A. Cicala, University of Delaware Pamela Costa, Tacoma Commmunity College Donna Dahlgren, Indiana University Southeast Leta Fenell, Chesapeake College Roseanne L. Flores, Hunter College Bety Jane Fratzke, Indiana Wesleyan University Robert Gallen, Indiana University of Pennsylvania J. P. Garofalo, University of Pittsburgh Michael Kaye Garza, Brookhaven College Roderick C. Gillis, University of Miami Leslie Grout, Hudson Valley Community College Arthur Gutman, Florida Institute of Technology Christine Harness, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee James R. Heard, Antelope Valley College Paul Hernandez, South Texas Community College Karen Jordan, University of Illinois at Chicago Kevin Keating, Broward Community College Saera Khan, Western Washington University Brian Kim, University of Maryland, College Park Michele K. Lewis, Northern Virginia Community College, Annandale Wanda McCarthy, Northern Kentucky University Diane Martichuski, University of Colorado at Boulder Glenn E. Meyer, Trinity University Fred Miller, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland Community College Richard Miller, Western Kentucky University Ann Miner, Indiana University of Pennsylvania Arthur G. Olguin, Santa Barbara City College Barbara Radigan, Community College of Allegheny County, Allegheny Campus Pamela Regan, California State University, Los Angeles Bob Riesenberg, Whatcom Community College Susan J. Shapiro, Indiana University East John E. Sparrow, University of New Hampshire, Manchester Meredith Stanford-Pollock, University of Massachusetts at Lowell Susan Swithers, Purdue University Jeremy Turner, The University of Tennessee at Martin David Wasieleski, Valdosta State University Marek Wosinski, Arizona State University Reviewers of Previous Editions The following psychologists shared their comments and ideas or contributed content for previous editions of Psychology: Valerie Ahl, University of Wisconsin–Madison; Susan xxiii Amato, Boise State University; Jim Backlund, Kirtland Community College; James Bartlett, University of Texas–Dallas; Jackson Beatty, UCLA; Ludy Benjamin, Texas A&M; John Best, Eastern Illinois University; Michelle Boyer-Pennington, Middle Tennessee State University; Charles Brewer, Clemson University; Richard Brislin, University of Hawaii; David Buss, University of Texas, Austin; James Calhoun, University of Georgia; Lillian Comas-Diaz, Transcultural Mental Health Institute; Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Claremont Graduate University; Florence Denmark, Pace University; Ellen Dennehy, University of Texas, Dallas; Kim Dielmann, University of Central Arkansas; G. William Domhoff, University of California–Santa Cruz; James Francis, San Jacinto College; Stanley Gaines, Pomona College; Robert Gifford, University of Victoria; James Greer, Louisiana State University; Jean Berko Gleason, Boston University; Richard Halgin, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; John Harvey; University of Iowa; N.C. Higgins, University of North British Columbia; James J. Johnson, Illinois State University; James Jones, University of Delaware; Seth Kalichman, Georgia State University; Laura King, Southern Methodist University; Paul R. Kleinginna, Georgia Southern University; Linda Kline, California State University, Chico; Karen Kopera-Frye, The University of Akron; Phil Kraemer, University of Kentucky; Eric Landrum, Boise State University; Gary D. Laver, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo; Marta Losonczy, Salisbury State University; Karen E. Luh, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Jerry Marshall, University of Central Florida; Vicki Mays, University of California–Los Angeles; David Mostofsky, Boston University; Carol Nemeroff, Arizona State University; David Neufeldt, Hutchinson Community College; Illene Noppe, University of Wisconsin–Green Bay; Cindy Nordstrom, Illinois State University; Alice O’Toole, University of Texas–Dallas; Raymond Paloutzian, Westmont College; David Penn, Louisiana State University; James Pennebaker, University of Texas–Austin; Jeffrey Pedroza, Lansing Community College; Lawrence A. Pervin, Rutgers University; Michelle Perry, University of Illinois at Urbana, Champaign; Vincent Punzo, Earlham College; Ed Raymaker, Eastern Main Technical College; Daniel Schacter, Harvard University; Judith A. Sheiman, Kutztown University; Paula Shear, University of Cincinnati; Cynthia Sifonis, University of Illinois; Charles M. Slem, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo; Steven Smith, Texas A&M; Keith E. Stanovich, University of Toronto; Barry Stein, Tennessee Technological University; Jutta M. Street, Wake Technical Community College; Roger M. Tarpy, Jr., Bucknell University; Christopher Taylor, University of Arizona; Leonard Williams, Rowan University; Michael Zickar, Bowling Green State University.